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THE CELT, THE ROMAN, AND 

THE SAXON: 



A HISTOEY OF THE EAELY INHABITANTS OF 



BEITAIN, 






DOWN TO THE CONVERSION OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS 
TO CHRISTIANITY. 



ILLUSTRATED BY THE ANCIENT REMAINS BROUGHT TO LIGHT BY 
RECENT RESEARCH. 



By THOMAS WEIGHT, Esq. 

M.A. F.S.A. M.R.S.L. 

Corresponding Member of the Institute of France {Academie des Inscriptions 
et Belles Lettres). 




LONDON : 
AETHUE HALL, VIRTUE, & CO., PATEENOSTEE EOW. 

1852. 



LONDON : 
BRADBURV AND EVANS, PRINTERS, WBUTEFRIARS. 



THE VISCOUNT MAHON, 

President of the Royal Society of Antiquaries, etc. etc. etc. 

Gtfjfe Uofome is JBcfcicatefc, 

AS A TESTIMONY OF SINCERE RESPECT EOR HIS DEVOTION 
TO LITERATURE AND SCIENCE. 



PREFACE. 



These is hardly a corner in our island in which the spade or 
the plough does not, from time to time, turn up relics of its 
earlier inhabitants, to astonish and to excite the curiosity of the 
observer, who, when he looks to an ordinary history of England, 
finds that the period to which such remains belong is passed 
over with so little notice, that he is left with no more informa- 
tion on the subject of his research, than he possessed before he 
opened the book. There is, in fact, no popular history of what 
is termed by antiquaries the Primeval Period, and those who 
are placed in the position just mentioned, if they happen not to 
possess a library of expensive publications, or to have the 
opportunity of consulting with those who have made archaeology 
their study, are at present obliged to remain satisfied with 
uncertain conjectures, and are thus led, in the absence of the 
requisite elementary knowledge, to form theories of their own 
which are far removed from the truth. It was in the wish to 
supply a want thus very extensively felt that the following little 
volume originated. Its object is to give a sketch of that part 
of our history which is not generally treated, of the period, 
before Britain became Christian England — the period, indeed 
which, in the absence of much documentary evidence, it is the 



PREFACE. 



peculiar province of the antiquary to illustrate. Every article 
which, as just stated, is turned up by the spade or the plough, 
is a record of that history, and it is by comparing them together, 
and subjecting them to the assay of science, that we make them 
tell their story. I have attempted in the following pages to 
show what light the still imperfect discoveries of the antiquary 
have thrown upon the condition of this island, during centuries 
which present little more than a blank in our ordinary annals. 

The studies of the antiquary are not so dry or so useless as 
many have been led to suppose, and it is clear that this is 
beginning to be generally understood by the widely increased 
popularity which they have gained during the last few years. 
His science, however, is yet but very imperfectly developed, 
but the difficulties which stood in the way of its advance are 
now in a great measure cleared away, and we may hope that it 
is making a steady and satisfactory progress. The great obstacle 
with which the student has had to contend was, the want of 
examples brought together for comparison, which led him 
continually to make assumptions that had no foundation, and 
to appropriate incorrectly, the consequences of which are visible 
in almost every work touching on the primeval antiquities of 
Britain that has appeared until the last few years. This 
obstacle is now rapidly giving way before the increasing facility 
of communicating knowledge, the formation of local museums, 
and the greater number of good books on the subject. But 
there is another danger against which the student in British 
archaeology is to be especially warned ; the old scholars failed 
in not following a sufficiently strict course of comparison and 
deduction ; but some of the new ones run into the opposite 
extreme of generalising too hastily, and they thus form systems 



PREFACE. 



specious and attractive in appearance, but without foundation 
in truth. Such I am convinced is the system of archaeological 
periods which has been adopted by the antiquaries of the north, 
and which a vain attempt has been made to introduce into this 
country. There is something we may perhaps say poetical, 
certainly imaginative, in talking of an age of stone, or an age 
of bronze, or an age of iron, but such divisions have no meaning 
in history, which cannot be treated as a physical science, 
and its objects arranged in genera and species. "We have 
to do with races of mankind, and we can only arrange the 
objects which come under our examination according to the 
peoples to whom they belonged, and as they illustrate their 
manners and history. In fact, the divisions alluded to are in 
themselves incorrect, and so far is the discovery of implements 
of stone, or of bronze, or of iron, in themselves proofs of any 
particular age, that we often find them together. It is true 
that there may have been a period when society was in so 
barbarous a state, that sticks or stones were the only imple- 
ments with which men knew how to furnish themselves ; but I 
doubt if the antiquary has yet found any evidence of such a 
period. Stone implements are certainly found with articles of 
metal, and it may fairly be doubted if the stone implements in 
general, found either in these islands or in the north, belong to 
a period antecedent to that in which metals were in common 
use. In the early period to which the present volume refers, 
intercommunication was slow and difficult, and an individual in 
any obscure village could not, as at present, send off by post to 
any distant town and get immediately the material he wanted 
in any given quantity. It was thus necessary to use such 
materials as came to hand, and there is no possible reason 
why one man should not possess a weapon or a tool formed of 



PREFACE. 



stone, while his richer or more fortunate contemporary had 
one of iron or of bronze. This latter is the metal found almost 
exclusively in what seem to be the earliest sepulchral inter- 
ments ; but we are not sufficiently acquainted with the manners 
and sentiments of the people to whom they belonged, to say 
that there was not some particular reasons why the deceased 
preferred articles of bronze rather than other metals. Perhaps 
it was looked upon as more precious. What was the origin of 
bronze but the attempt to harden copper in countries where 
iron was not known, or could not be procured ; it is a mixed 
metal, and it is absurd to suppose that its use could have 
preceded that of iron in countries where the latter metal was 
abundant. We must also bear in mind that iron undergoes 
much more rapid decomposition ; and if even in interments 
of the Anglo-Saxon period we very often find scarcely a trace 
remaining of what we know were articles composed of that 
metal, what must be the case with regard to similar interments 
made six or seven hundred years earlier, or possibly at a still 
more remote period? 

I have thought it necessary to make these observations, 
because it will be seen, that in the following manual I have 
altogether discarded this vague system of metallic periods. I 
have treated antiquities simply according to the races to which 
they belonged. In fact, I have attempted to make archaeology 
walk hand-in-hand with history. 

I feel conscious, at the same time, that my attempt must be, 
in many respects, an imperfect one, and that I have good reason 
for appealing to the indulgence of my readers. My object was 
to supply the want of a manual of British archaeology, where 



PREFACE. 



there was really no such work existing, and it has been the 
occupation of leisure moments under many disadvantages. If 
it help to render the science more popular, and to call the 
attention of Englishmen more generally to the memorials of the 
past history of their country, my object will be fully accomplished. 
Those who wish to pursue the subject further must study the 
objects themselves, and refer to some of the larger and more 
expensive works which may be found in public libraries. To 
place such objects and works within the reach of people in 
general is the chief purpose of local museums and societies. A 
great mass of valuable material for the illustration of the 
antiquities of the period under our present consideration, will 
be found scattered through the volumes of the Archseologia of 
the Society of Antiquaries of London ; but the unexperienced 
antiquary must pay more attention to the plates than to the 
descriptions. The best collection of antiquarian materials we 
possess at present is the Collectanea Antiqua by Mr. Roach 
Smith, which, however, is already becoming rare. Many good 
papers on primeval antiquities, by Mr. Roach Smith and others, 
will also be found in the earlier volumes of the Journal of the 
Eritish Archaeological Association ; but the recent volumes of 
that publication are entirely degenerated in archaeological 
character. The Journal of the Archaeological Institute has 
always run chiefly upon medieval antiquities. Other valuable 
works for reference, but of a less general character, will be 
pointed out in the notes to the following pages. 

The value of a work on antiquities depends much on its 
pictorial illustrations, for it is evident that descriptions of the 
objects without engravings would be very vague and unsatis- 
factory. I have endeavoured in the present work to give 



PEEFACE. 



engravings of all such objects as represent the classes, or 
peculiar types, with which it is necessary that the student in 
archaeology should make himself acquainted. In doing this, I 
have to acknowledge the kind and ready assistance of one or two 
friends, to whom the antiquarianism of this country owes much 
of its progress at the present day ; and, although by far the 
greater part of the illustrations were engraved expressly for 
this work, and are due to the skilful pencil of Mr. Fairholt, I 
have availed myself of the offers of Mr. Bruce of Newcastle, to 
lend me some of the cuts from his excellent work on the Eoman 
Wall, and of Mr. Eoach Smith, who similarly placed at my 
disposal the cuts of his Collectanea, and of his recent work on 
the antiquities of Eichborough, Eeculver, and Lymne. 

THOMAS WEIGHT. 

Brompton, May, 1852. 



CONTENTS, 



CHAPTER I. 

PAGE 

Ethnological Views — Political Movements in Gaul — Caesar's first and second 
Invasions — Cassivellaunus — The Britons, as described by Csesar, Strabo, and 
Diodorus — Cunobeline and his Sons — Expedition of Claudius — Conquests of the 
earlier Proprietors — Caractacus — Cartismandua and Yenusius — Invasion of Mona 
— Insurrection of Boadicea — War with the Brigantes — Campaigns of Agricola — 
Total Subjection of the Island to Eome — Enumeration of the British Tribes 
— Hibernia — Manners of the Britons, as described by Ancient Writers — The 
Druids . . ... 1 



CHAPTER II. 

British Antiquities — Barrows — Cromlechs, and Sepulchral Chambers — Circles; 
Stonehenge — Other Monuments of Stone — Various descriptions of British 
Barrows — Their contents — Pottery — Instruments of Stone — Instruments of 
Metal — Other articles — Their value as illustrative of Histoiy — The British 
Coinage — Earthworks, and supposed sites of Towns and Villages . . . .49 



CHAPTER III. 

Britain at the beginning of the Second Century — Towns enumerated by Ptolemy — 
Hadrian — The Wall — Lollius Urbicus ; the Wall of Antoninus — Rebellion of the 
Soldiery in Britain — Albinus contends for the Purple— Campaigns of Severus, 
who dies at Eburacum (York) — The Caledonians — Carausius usurps the Purple — 
Allectus — Britain restored to the Empire by Constantius — Constantine the 
Great — Revolt of Magnentius — The Picts and Scots 94 



CHAPTER IY. 

A Journey through Roman Britain — Londinium — Great Road from Londinium to 
Segontium— Verulamium; Uriconium, &c. — Direct Northern Road from Lon- 
dinium ; Durobrivse, Lindum, Danum, Eburacum, Isurium — Passage of the two 



CONTENTS. 



PAGE 

Walls — Stations on the Wall — Branch to Luguballium and Blatum Bulgium — 
Eastern Road ; Camulodunum, Camboricum — From Londinium to Calleva — 
Branch to Corinium and Glevum; Iscu and Maridunum— From Glevum by 
Magna to Deva, and thence through Coccium to the North— Cross Roads — 
Salinse and other Towns — The Western Road, from Calleva to Sorbiodunum, 
Durnovaria, and Isca Dumnoniorum — Aquse Solis — The trajectus to Wales, and 
the Sarn Helen— The Road on the Southern Coast; Venta Belgarum, 
Clausentum, Portus Magnus, Regnum, Anderida, Portus Lemanis. . . . 120 



CHAPTER V. 

A Roman Town in Britain — Its Walls, Towers, and Gates —Materials, and Modes of 
Construction — The Houses — Their Plan, and Arrangement — The Tesselated 
Pavements and Frescoed Walls— Method of Warming the Houses ; the 
Hypocausts — The Baths — Windows and Roofs — Distribution of the Houses in 
Streets— Public Buildings; Temples, Basilicse, Theatres, Amphitheatres — The 
Suburbs and Burial-places — Sanitary Arrangements ; Sewers, Rubbish-pits. . 146 



CHAPTER VI. 

The Country — Roman Roads, and their Construction— Milliaria; the Roman Mile — 
Bridges — Roman Villas ; Woodchester, Bignor, &c— Tesselated Pavements, and 
the Subjects represented on them — Rustic Villages— Agriculture and Farming — 
Country Life ; the Chase — British Dogs ... 180 



CHAPTER VII. 

Manufactures of the Romans in Britain — Pottery — The Upchurch Ware — Dym- 
church— The Potteries at Durobrivae— The Samian Ware — Other Varieties — 
Terra-cottas — Roman Glass — Kimmeridge Coal Manufacture — Mineral Coal — 
Metal — The Roman Iron- works in Britain; Sussex, the Forest of Dean, &c. — 
Tin and Lead— Other Metals — Bronze— The Arts ; Sculpture — Medicine ; the 
Oculists' Stamps — Trades ; a Goldsmith's Sign 209 



CHAPTER VIII. 

Ethnological Character of the Roman Population of Britain — Countries from which 
it was derived — The Auxiliary Troops— Names and Birthplaces of Individuals — 
Traces of Languages ; Inscribed Pottery ; the Roundels found at Colchester- 
Debased Latinity — Remains of the British Population ...... 249 



CHAPTER IX, 

Religious Worship of the Romans in Britain— Roman Chief Deities ; Jupiter, Mars, 
Apollo, Minerva, Ceres, &c— The eight Deities— Lesser Deities; Silvanus, 
^Esculapius— Grecian and Eastern Deities; the Tyrian Hercules, Mythras, 



CONTENTS. 



PAGE 

Serapis — The Nymphs and Genii, Fortune, and Deified Personifications — Deities 
of the Auxiliary Eaces ; the Dese Matres, Viteres or Vitris, Belatucadrus, 
Cocidius, Mogontis, &c. — Did Christianity prevail or exist in Roman Britain? . 256 



CHAPTER X. 

Modes of Sepulture ^n Roman Britain — Cremation, and Urn-Burial — Modes of 
Interment— Burial of the Body entire — Sarcophagi — Coffins of Baked Clay, Lead, 
and Wood — Barrows — Sepulchral Chambers — Inscriptions, and their Sentiments 
—Various articles deposited with the Dead— Fulgor Divom 300 



CHAPTER XI. 

Domestic Life among the Romans in Britain as Illustrated by their Remains- 
Dress and Personal Ornaments — the Toilette — the Household; Furniture and 
Utensils — Female Occupations — Cutlery — Styli — Scales — Ornamental Articles — 
Weapons, &c 326 



CHAPTER XII. 

The Romcn Province — Its Divisions and Officers — the Military Force— Centurial 
and other Inscriptions — Towns and their Municipal Constitution — the Coinage 
— Roman Coins relating to Britain — Spurious Coinage — Different methods of 
Hoarding Money . 349 



CHAPTER XIII. 

Declining State of the Roman Empire after the age of Julian— Theodosius sent 
to Britain — Revolt and Career of Maximus — Stilichio — Marcus and Gratian 
Revolt in Britain — The Usurper Constantine — Honorius — Britain independent 
of the Empire and harassed by the Northern Barbarians— The Britons receive 
assistance from Rome — The last Roman Legion withdrawn— The Angles and 
Saxons come in— The Angles settle in Northumbria — The Jutes in Kent — 
Hengest and Horsa— iElla in Sussex — Cerdic arrives in Hampshire— Essex and 
the Angles— Mission of St. Augustine and Conversion of the Anglo-Saxons 
to Christianity 374 



CHAPTER XIV. 

Anglo-Saxon Antiquities— Barrows, or Graves, and the general Character of their 
Contents— Arms — Personal Ornaments ; Fibulse, &c. — Anglo-Saxon Jewellery — 
Pottery— Glass— Other Articles found in the Barrows ; Bowls, Buckets, (fee- 
Coins — Early Anglo Saxon Coinage . . ; 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER XV. 

PAGE 

Anglo-Saxon Settlement — Division of the Land — Population of the Country and of 
the Towns— Continuance of the Koman Municipalities — Traces of Municipal 
Privileges in the Anglo-Saxon Towns ; Canterbury, Rochester, Dover, Exeter, 
London 432 



CHAPTER XVI. 

Celtic Establishments — Cumbria, Cornwall, Wales — Early Sepulchral Inscriptions 
found in the two latter countries 452 



Appendix I. — The Itineraries and Lists of Towns : 

Itinerary of Antoninus 457 

Itinerary of Richard of Cirencester 459 

The Ravenna List of Towns 463 

Appendix IL— Roman Potters' Marks 467 



LIST OP PLATES. 



V MAP OF BRITAIN UNDER THE ROMANS .... 

I STONEHENGE, FROM THE W.N.W. . . . .to 

V RUINS OF THE GATE AT LTMNE ... 

VPART OF THE WALLS OF A TOWN 

Y FOUNDATIONS OF HOUSES AT ALDBOROUGH . 

V HYPOCAUST IN THE ROMAN VILLA AT WOODCHESTER 

', CORNER OF THE CRYPTOPORTICUS, ROMAN VILLA AT 
BIGNOR 

/ROMAN POTTERY FROM CASTOR AND THE UPCHURCH 
MARSHES 

ROMAN POTTER'S KILN AT CASTOR 

I GROUP OF SAMIAN WARE 

ROMAN TOMBS ... 

V ANGLO-SAXON WEAPONS, ETC 

V ANGLO-SAXON FIBULA 



to face Title. 

face page 09 

„ 149 

„ 153 

„ 163 

„ 196 

„ 199 

„ 210 

„ 212 

„ 218 

„ 304 

„ 404 

„ 411 



THE BRITONS. 



CHAPTER I. 



Ethnological Views — Political Movements in Gaul — Caesar's first and second 
Invasions — Cassivellaunus — The Britons, as described by Csesar, Strabo, and 
Diodorus — Cunobeline and his Sons — Expedition of Claudius — Conquests of 
the earlier Propraetors — Caractaeus — Cartismaudua and Venusius — Invasion 
of Mona — Insurrection of Boadicea — War with the Brigantes — Campaigns of 
Agricola — Total Subjection of the Island to Rome — Enumeration of the 
British Tribes — Hibernia — Manners of the Britons, as described by Ancient 
Writers — The Druids. 

According to the system now generally adopted by ethnologists, 
Europe was peopled by several successive migrations, or, as they 
have been technically named, waves of population, all flowing 
from one point in the east. Of these the two principal were the 
Celts and the Germans, both branches of the same great race, 
which has been popularly termed the Japhetan, because, accord- 
ing to the scriptural account, the various peoples which belonged 
to it were all descended from Japhet. The Celts came first in 
point of time, and, making their way apparently through the dis- 
tricts bordering on the Mediterranean, they spread over all Western 
Europe. The German nations, entering Europe from the shores 
of the Bla,ck Sea, advanced through its central parts, till, coming 
in contact with the Celts, they gradually drove them forwards to 
the west and south-west. The Germans themselves were urged 
westward by a new migration which was pressing upon them from 
behind, that of the Sclavonic or Sarmatian race, which, as early 
as the time of the Greek historian Herodotus, that is, in the 
middle of the fifth century before Christ, had already established 
itself on the eastern borders of Europe. 

Of the successive movements of these nations, and the mutual 

B 



THE BRITONS. [chap. i. 



struggles which ended in their location in the positions they 
occupied when we first become acquainted with them, history has 
preserved no record. The early Greek writers knew little of 
Western Europe, and Herodotus could only inform us that the 
western extremity was occupied by a people whom he terms the 
Cynetse, and that all the countries next to them were said to be 
inhabited by the Celtae or Celts ; and he had an indistinct notion 
of the British isles, under the general term of Cassiterides, or the 
tin islands, as the grand source from which the Phoenicians derived 
their supply of that metal. The philosopher Aristotle, who lived 
a hundred years later, or about three centuries and a half before 
Christ, speaks more definitely and distinctly of the ocean without 
the Pillars of Hercules (the Straits of Gibraltar), in which he tells 
us there were "two islands, which are very large, Albion and 
Ierne, called the Britannic, which lie beyond the Celtae." This 
is the earliest mention of our islands by their names. Another 
Greek historian, Polybius, who wrote very little more than a 
hundred and fifty years before the Christian era, adds nothing to 
our knowledge on this subject, but he speaks of the method in 
which the tin was obtained and prepared in the " Britannic isles," 
as of a matter with which he was well acquainted, and which was 
then a subject of so much interest that he wrote a separate treatise 
upon it, now unfortunately lost. All that we learn from these few 
and scanty notices is, that from a very early period of the history 
of the world, the merchants of Phoenicia obtained their supply of 
tin (an article in use as far back as the time of Homer) from Britain. 
As this metal is found chiefly in Cornwall and the Scilly islands, 
the parts of Britain which would first present themselves to navi- 
gators from the Phoenician port on the coast of Spain, Gadeira or 
Gades (the modern Cadiz), we are justified in believing that these 
and the south of Ireland were the only districts visited by that 
people, who, as we are further assured, kept their knowledge a 
profound secret, in order that they might with greater ease mono- 
polise a lucrative branch of commerce. The geographer Strabo 
tells us that the Komans long attempted in vain to discover the 
place from whence the Phoenicians obtained their tin, to which at 
this time were added lead and perhaps copper, and that on one 
occasion a Phoenician captain, perceiving that he was folio wc 1 and 
watched by Koman vessels, run his own ship intentionally on the 
rocks rather than let the secret be discovered, and, escaping with 



chap, l] THE TIN ISLANDS. 3 

his crew on a raft, was rewarded by his own government for his 
patriotism. It was not till a Roman named Publius Crassus, who 
is supposed to be the commander sent by Csesar at the end of his 
first campaign in Gaul to reduce the Gallic tribes on the shores 
of the British Channel, discovered the trade of the Phoenicians 
with Britain, that the Romans became acquainted with the route 
by which their merchants reached Britain by sea, and with the 
ease with which the tin was dug up, it being then found at a very 
small depth under the surface of the ground. Previous to this, 
however, two other commercial states had established an intercourse 
with the tin district of Britain. The Carthaginian Himilco, sent 
by his government on a voyage of discovery between the years 362 
and 350 before the Christian era, visited the tin islands, which he 
calls CEstrymnides, near Albion, and two days' sail from Ierne, by 
which he is supposed to mean some of the isles on the Cornish 
coast ; and the Phocean colonies of Massilia and Narbona carried 
on the same commerce overland. We are informed by another 
Greek writer, Diodorus Siculus, that the tin was carried from the 
district in which it was found to an island " in front of Britain," 
named Ictis, apparently the Isle of Wight, where it was purchased 
by native merchants, who transported it to Gaul, and it was then 
carried overland on pack-horses a journey of thirty days to the 
mouth of the Rhone. Everything, however, relating to this dis- 
tant region, almost unconnected with the world as then known, was 
wrapped in mystery ; and Scipio could obtain no satisfactory answer 
to the anxious inquiries concerning Britain which he made among 
the merchants of the great cities of Massilia, Narbona, and Corbelo. 
The veil was at length drawn aside by the ambition of Julius 
Caesar. 

At this time the movement of the German race towards the west 
was proceeding rapidly, and the Celtic populations of Gaul and 
Britain would probably have been soon crushed beneath the 
invasion, had not the Romans stepped in to arrest its progress. 
Perhaps the northern parts of Gaul were already extensively 
peopled by tribes of German extraction, and there are reasons 
for believing that the Belgae were themselves a Teutonic race,* a 

* C tear tells us distinctly, that the Belgse differed in language, customs, and 
laws, from the Celtee, equally with the Aquitani : " Gallia est omnis divisa in 
partes tres ; quarum imam incolimt Belgse, aliam Aquitani, tertiam qui ipsorum 
lingua Celtae nostra Galli adpellantur. Hi omnes lingua, institutis, legibus inter se 

B2 



THE BRITONS. [chap. i. 



circumstance which would explain some difficulties in the history 
of Western Europe at this period. 

The mass of the Celtic population, as we learn from Caesar, 
were serfs, without civil influence or even civil rights ; the mere 
slaves of the superior orders. The latter were divided into two 
very distinct classes — the Druids and the knights (milites) ; or, 
in other words, the priests and the chiefs of clans or military 
leaders. The former, who resembled the Brahminical class in 
India, combined with the sacerdotal profession the functions of 
judges and legislators, and during the course of ages they seem 
gradually to have usurped the supreme powers in the state, and 
to have reduced the military chiefs to a state of political subjection. 
These, however, had not entirely forgotten their ancient inde- 
pendence, and the spirit of resistance appears to have been stirred 
up and encouraged by the example of the Teutonic tribes who 
were now mixing with them, and who were far less priest-ridden, 
for Caesar tells us that they had no Druids. The whole of Gaul 
became thus divided into two great political factions, some of the 
tribes uniting in support of the Druidical influence, while others 
took part with the military chiefs. The western Celtse — among 
whom were the Carnutes, in whose territory (the modern Chartres) 
stood the sacred grove, the head seat of Druidic worship in Gaul, 
with the people of Brittany, of whose devotion to the religion of 
their race so many rude monuments still remain — all supported 
the Druidic faction, of which the Hedui, who inhabited the 
modern Burgundy, took the lead. The Belgae, as might be 
expected, with the northern tribes, supported the other faction, 
at the head of which were the Sequani, whose capital was Vesontio 
(the modern Besancon). Hard pressed by the Druid faction, the 
tribes who supported the military chiefs had called to their assist- 
ance the Germans under Ariovistus, while to resist these terrible 
invaders, the Hedui appealed for protection to Rome. To Caesar 
this was a welcome proposal ; he came with his legions, drove 
the Germans back over the Rhine, and then, taking advantage of 
the political divisions among the nations of Gaul, proceeded to 
reduce it to a Roman province. The Gauls, too late, threw aside 
their mutual animosities in order to resist their common enemy, 

difFerunt." This statement, combined with various circumstances of their history, 
lead me to believe that they were of German origin; and I confess that the 
arguments of Dr. Prichard and others, to the contrary, seem to me unsatisfactory. 



chap, i.] OESAR'S INVASION OF BRITAIN. 5 

and when Caesar thought that they were cut off from all foreign 
aid by the ocean behind them, he found that they were drawing 
powerful reinforcements from Britain. The Belgae, who surpassed 
all the other nations of Gaul in valour and conduct, were the last 
to yield to the military genius of the Roman commander and the 
steady discipline of his cohorts. When he at length reached their 
coast, and saw from the heights between Boulogne and Calais the 
white cliffs of Albion, he resolved to carry his arms into the 
island which had so long been an object of curiosity to his country- 
men, and ascertain the resources which might be used to assist 
those whom he had made their foes. 

Britain contained at this time nearly the same political elements 
as Gaul. The basis of its population was the same Celtic race 
which there held with the Druidic faction ; and the supremacy of 
the Druids or priestly order seems to have been established more 
firmly in Britain even than in Gaul. We are not able to say with 
any certainty if any, or how much, of the population of the western 
parts of our island derived its origin from the Aquitanian or 
Basque race, but we know that the Belgae had taken possession 
of the richest parts of South Britain, and that these settlers were 
in close alliance with their brethren on the other side of the 
Straits, while the Celtic Veneti of Gaul, a seafaring tribe, main- 
tained their old commercial intercourse with the Celts of Britain. 
We are ignorant of the extent to which the division between the 
Druids and the military chiefs had been introduced into this island, 
but we know that the British tribes in the time of Caesar were no 
strangers to civil strife. 

As the season was far advanced, the Roman commander saw that 
no time was to be lost, and he called together the merchants from 
different parts of the coast, in the hopes of obtaining from them 
the necessary information relating to the country which he was 
about to invade. But they seem to have conspired together to 
deceive him, and, when he questioned them, they could tell him 
neither the extent of the island, nor the number or character of 
the natives who inhabited it, nor even the harbours in which a 
fleet might anchor. Nevertheless, they sent intelligence to the 
Britons of the designs of invasion and conquest which Caesar had 
not concealed. Several of the British states, thus warned, 
dispatched messengers to Caesar, offering to submit to the govern- 
ment of the Roman people and to give hostages for their fidelity. 



THE BRITONS. [char i. 



These he sent back with liberal promises, and they were accom- 
panied by Commius, whom the Roman commander had made king 
over the vanquished Attrebates of Gaul, and who was directed to 
visit as many of the states as he could, and to exhort them to 
submit to the Romans. The real object of the British envoys was 
perhaps to gain information, and Caesar was still as ignorant as 
ever of the country and its coasts. He, therefore, sent one of his 
officers, Caius Volusenus, with a war-galley, to survey the British 
coasts, while he assembled his troops in the country of the Morini 
(the Pas-de-Calais), and ordered the ships which had been employed 
in the preceding year against the Veneti to repair to the Portus 
Iccius, a naval station afterwards called Gessoriacum (Boulogne). 

Satisfied with the imperfect survey of Volusenus, Caesar 
embarked at the Portus Iccius before daybreak in an autumn 
morning, carrying with him, in about eighty vessels of burden, his 
favourite legion, the tenth, in the courage and devotion of which 
he placed the utmost confidence, and the seventh. His cavalry 
was directed to follow in eighteen vessels which were stationed in 
a port about eight miles from that in which Csesar embarked. 
About ten o'clock in the forenoon the Roman fleet arrived on the 
coast of Britain, here formed of low cliffs, which were covered 
with British warriors prepared for battle. After waiting in vain 
for the arrival of his cavalry until three o'clock in the afternoon, 
Caesar took advantage of a favourable wind and tide, and running 
on about seven miles further, brought his ships up on an open 
and level strand, which was more favourable for the landing of his 
troops. The latter were seized with alarm at the novel and 
formidable appearance of the multitude of warriors who had hurried 
forwards to meet them and were now drawn up in hostile array 
on the shore, and, unacquainted with the depth of the water, they 
were unwilling to leave their ships. At length, after much hesi- 
tation, the standard-bearer of the tenth legion, calling on his fellow 
soldiers to follow, jumped into the sea. It was some time before 
the Roman soldiers could reach firm ground ; for the depth of 
their ships had obliged them to anchor at a considerable distance 
from the shore, and they had to struggle through deep water, in 
which they were impeded by the weight of their arms and 
accoutrements ; while their enemies, lighter and more agile, rode 
into the water with their horses, and attacked them, as they 
attempted to form, in small parties, or overwhelmed them with a 



chap, l] FIRST PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROMANS. 7 

shower of missiles from the beach. As soon, however, as the 
soldiers obtained a firm footing, the Britons, who had shown no 
want of courage in the previous confused engagement, yielded to 
superior discipline, and fled, making their escape with the less 
loss because the invaders were destitute of cavalry. 

Thus did the Romans, for the first time, place their feet on that 
distant island whose name had hitherto belonged rather to the 
poet than to the historian. It is not easy to explain the subse- 
quent conduct of the Britons, except by the entire want of union 
among the various tribes which were scattered over the island. 
Their chiefs, instead of making any further attempt to retrieve 
their first defeat, or appealing to the other tribes to join them in 
resisting the invaders, sent messengers to Caesar with excuses for 
the resistance they had already made, promising obedience in 
future, and offering hostages. Commius, the chief of the Attrebates, 
came with these messengers ; he had been seized on his arrival in 
Britain, and thrown into chains ; but the chiefs now gave him his 
liberty, throwing the blame of his detention on the multitude, and 
promising to make amends for their imprudent hostility. Caesar 
readily granted them peace, demanding a certain number of 
hostages, part of whom were immediately delivered ; and the 
chiefs dismissed their followers, and repaired, in considerable 
numbers, to Caesar's camp. The insincerity of their submission 
w r as, however, soon proved. Caesar had been four days in Britain 
before his cavalry could put to sea from the coast of Gaul, and 
then, although a favourable wind brought them within sight of 
the camp, the weather became so stormy that they were driven 
back to the ports they had left. The storm increased during 
the night, dragged the transports from their anchors, and drove 
the whole fleet on the shore, where most of the Roman ships were 
destroyed, or more or less damaged. This accident, and the 
dismay into which it threw Caesar's army, encouraged the British 
chiefs to form a new confederacy, with the design of attacking the 
camp, from which, under various pretences, they gradually 
withdrew. The Romans busied themselves with refitting their 
fleet, and were not aware of the designs of the Britons, till one 
day when the seventh legion went out, as usual, to forage. They 
had not been long absent, when the guards at the gate of the 
camp reported that there was an unusual cloud of dust in the 
direction which they had taken ; and Caesar, hurrying with other 



THE BRITONS. [chap. i. 



troops to the assistance of his foragers, found that the latter were 
surrounded by a multitude of armed Britons, who had rushed 
upon them from the woods, and that they were defending them- 
selves with difficulty against the attacks of the horsemen and 
charioteers. The assailants were now repulsed; but Caesar found 
it necessary to draw off his men, and make good his retreat to the 
camp, where the Britons, who considered this engagement as a 
victory, determined to attack him ; and they sent messengers in 
all directions, to call the neighbouring chiefs to their standard. 
A continuance of stormy weather prevented the attack during 
several days, during which Caesar, warned of their design, made 
every preparation for defence, the result of which was a new and 
severe defeat of the Britons, who were pursued with slaughter by 
a small body of cavalry which attended upon the Attrebatian 
Commius. The same day, the chiefs sent again to demand peace, 
which Caesar, anxious to return to Gaul before the setting-in of 
the equinoctial gales, granted, after exacting double the number 
of hostages which he had previously required. He then embarked 
his troops, and reached the country of the Morini in safety, from 
whence the intelligence sent him by his friends recalled him to 
Italy. But, before his departure, he gave directions for fitting 
out a great number of ships, of a shape better adapted for landing 
his troops on the shores of Britain, announcing that it was his 
intention to return to the island in the ensuing spring. 

The officers and troops left in Gaul showed their zeal in the 
completeness with which they executed the orders of their great 
commander ; and when Caesar returned to them, in the year 
64 b.c, he found everything ready for the transport of his troops, 
his horses, and his provisions. The former consisted of five 
legions, with two thousand foot. These were embarked . in 
upwards of eight hundred ships, and the appearance of this 
numerous fleet so alarmed the Britons, that they deserted the 
coast, and retired to the less accessible parts of the country. The 
Romans, on this occasion, landed in or near the same spot as in 
the year preceding ; and Caesar chose a place for his camp on the 
shore. Some prisoners, taken in the course of the same afternoon, 
having given information of the spot where the Britons were 
assembled, he marched against them at night, leaving ten cohorts 
and three hundred horse to guard the ships. He found the 
Britons posted in a woody district, about twelve Roman (perhaps 



chap, l] CESAR'S SECOND INVASION. 9 

sixteen English) miles from his camp, on the banks of a river 
supposed to be the Stour ; and as he approached (I now use his 
own words), they " came down to the river to meet him, with their 
horsemen and chariots, and attempted, from elevated ground, to 
begin the battle, and repel our troops. But our horse soon drove 
them back, and they took refuge in the woods, where they had a 
place singularly strong both by nature and art, and which, to all 
appearances, had been constructed by them as a stronghold during 
their civil wars ; for every approach to it was effectually blocked 
up with felled trees. Some few of their troops, however, con- 
tinued to skirmish from the woods, and prevented our men from 
entering their fortress. But the soldiers of the seventh legion 
locked their shields together, so as to form what is called the 
testudo, and, mounting over a mound thrown up against the 
defences, took the place, and expelled the Britons from the woods, 
without experiencing much loss themselves." 

Caesar was prevented from following up this success by the 
intelligence of another disaster which had befallen his fleet, by a 
violent storm on the second night after his arrival. He returned 
in haste to his camp, found that the damage done to his fleet had 
not been exaggerated by the messengers who brought him intelli- 
gence of it, and gave immediate directions for repairing the shat- 
tered ships. " He now resolved, notwithstanding the difficulty of 
the task, to haul up all his ships, and inclose them in one line of 
fortification with the camp. This labour occupied about ten days ; 
and the work was not intermitted during the night. The vessels 
were thus drawn up, and a camp strongly fortified ; after which, 
leaving the same force as before to guard the fleet, he recom- 
menced his march in the same direction as before." Caesar found 
that the Britons had employed the time which he had lost, by the 
disaster of his fleet, in composing their differences and uniting 
against him ; for when he landed in Britain, the different tribes 
were engaged in mutual hostilities : perhaps it was a struggle 
between the Belgian settler and the aboriginal Celt : # and the chief 
of the last is named by Caesar, Cassivellaunus or Cassibellaunus. 
This chief, who seems to have been of the British race, and whose 
territory is supposed to have been the present county of Hertford, 

* It may perhaps "be considered, in favour of this supposition, that the chiefs 
who were oppressed hy Cassivellaunus fled to the continent to seek assistance, 
instead of applying to the native tribes of the interior. 



10 THE BRITONS. [chap. i. 

had been gradually reducing under his sway the tribes around 
him. We learn, incidentally, that some of the chiefs, whose 
rights he had usurped, had fled to Gaul, and there made their 
complaint to Caesar, and implored his protection. This was the 
case with Mandubratius, the young chief of the Trinovantes, a 
people occupying the modern county of Essex, and considered, at 
the time of Caesar's invasion, as the principal tribe of this part of 
the island. The kingdom of the Trinobantes had been seized by 
Cassivellaunus, who murdered its king, Imanuentius, the father 
of Mandubratius, and the latter only escaped a similar fate by 
flight. 

The different tribes of the south-eastern parts of the island, as 
we have just said, now joined in a temporary league against the 
invaders : and it is a proof of the general estimation of the talents 
of Cassivellaunus, that they agreed in selecting him for their 
leader. In consequence of this confederacy, when Caesar marched 
back to the position from which he had been called by the disaster 
of his fleet, he found the enemy collected in much greater numbers 
than before, to oppose his further progress. The Roman legions 
and their auxiliaries were now exposed to constant attacks, in the 
course of which they lost many men ; for the woods, which appear 
to have covered or skirted the country through which Caesar 
marched, gave a secure shelter to the Britons, and they were thus 
enabled to harass the Romans by sudden and unexpected attacks, 
and, when repulsed, to retreat without loss, as the heavy-armed 
legionaries would seldom overtake them in their flight. " In all 
these skirmishes," Caesar tells us, " so immediately under our 
eyes, and close to the camp, it was evident that the weight of our 
men's armour prevented them from pursuing the enemy when 
they retreated, or advancing far from their own colours. In 
short, their accoutrements were ill-adapted for contending with 
such an enemy as they had now to deal with ; and the cavalry, in 
particular, were much exposed on the field of battle ; for the 
Britons would often make a feigned retreat, and allure them to 
separate from the legions, after which they would leap from their 
chariots, and take the cavalry at a disadvantage. . . . Moreover, 
the Britons never advanced in one body, but fought in small 
parties, stationed at intervals, so that one squadron relieved 
another, and our men, who had been contending against those 
who were exhausted, suddenly found themselves engaged with a 



chap, l] defeat OF CASSIVELLAUNUS. 11 

fresh body, who had taken their places. The next day, the 
enemy posted themselves on the hills, at some distance from the 
camp, and only appeared a few at a time ; and they were also 
less disposed to attack our cavalry than they had been the day 
before. About noon, Caesar sent out Caius Trebonius, the 
lieutenant, with three legions and all the cavalry, to forage ; 
upon which the enemy assembled from all sides, and surrounded 
the foragers, who were unable to leave their colours, or separate 
from the legions. Our men now made a general attack upon 
them, and put them to flight and pursued them without inter- 
cession, as long as the legions kept in sight to give the cavalry 
confidence of support whilst they drove the Britons before them. 
In this manner, they did not allow them time to rally, or halt, or 
leap from their chariots, according to their usual custom. In 
consequence of this defeat, the British reinforcements, which 
were arriving from all sides, again disbanded, and from that time 
the enemy never again came to a general engagement. Caesar 
now knowing their intentions, led his army towards the Thames, 
in order to invade the territories of Cassivellaunus. The river 
could only be passed, on foot, in one place, and that with difficulty. 
When he arrived on its banks, he perceived a large force drawn 
up on the other side to oppose him ; the bank, moreover, was 
planted with sharp stakes, and others of the same kind were fixed 
in the bed of the river beneath the water. Caesar gained intel- 
ligence of this from prisoners and deserters. He accordingly 
sent the cavalry in advance, and brought up the infantry imme- 
diately in their rear. So great were the ardour and impetuosity 
of the soldiers, that, whilst their heads alone appeared above the 
water, the enemy, unable to sustain their attack, abandoned the 
bank and fled precipitately. Cassivellaunus, as we have before 
observed, abandoned all idea of fighting, and dismissed the greater 
part of his forces, retaining only about four thousand men in 
chariots. With these he watched our march, and, retiring out of 
our way, lay in wait for us among the woods and difficult passes. 
Meanwhile, he cleared the whole country through which our road 
lay, both of men and cattle ; and when our foragers went out to 
get provisions and waste the country, his knowledge of the ways 
enabled him to assail them with all his chariots ; this caused 
much danger to our cavalry, and prevented them from going far 
from the main body." 



12 THE BRITONS. [chap. i. 

One defeat was sufficient to break the ill-consorted alliance 
-which Cassivellaunus had formed against the Romans ; and the 
superiority of the latter once demonstrated, the different tribes 
who had been oppressed by that chieftain seem to have thrown the 
blame of their resistance on his influence, making a merit of their 
personal hostility towards him, and seeking an alliance with the 
invaders. First came messengers from the Trinobantes of 
Middlesex and Essex, who offered to submit to the Romans on 
condition that they should espouse the cause of their young chief 
Mandubratius, and restore him to the sovereignty of their tribe, 
which Cassivellaunus had usurped. The treaty w T as soon arranged ; 
Mandubratius, who happened to be in Caesar's camp, was sent 
back to rule his tribe as a Roman tributary ; and the Trinobantes, 
according to agreement, gave forty hostages, and supplied the 
Roman army with corn. The example of the Trinobantes was 
immediately followed by the Cenimagni, the Segontiaci, the 
Ancalites, the Bibroci, and the Cassi. The first of these tribes 
lay to the north of the Trinobantes, in the present county of 
Suffolk ; the Segontiaci occupied the greater part of the present 
counties of Hampshire and Berkshire ; the Bibroci inhabited a 
thickly- wooded country, containing the celebrated forest of Anderida 
— including a small part of Hampshire and Berkshire, and stretch- 
ing through the modern counties of Sussex and Surrey into the 
eastern parts of Kent ; the position of the Ancalites is less certain, 
but they, perhaps, lay on the north of Berkshire and on the 
western borders of Middlesex ; and if the Cassi were the same tribe 
that was called by Ptolemy the Catyeuchlani, as is supposed, they 
formed the link between these other tribes and the Trinobantes, 
stretching through the modern counties of Hertford, Bedford, 
and Buckingham. The envoys of these tribes informed Caesar, 
" that the town of Cassivellaunus was not far off, surrounded by 
woods and marshes, and occupied by a large number of men and 
cattle. The Britons call by the name of town a place in the 
fastnesses of the woods surrounded by a mound and trench, and 
calculated to afford them a retreat and protection from hostile 
invasion. Csesar immediately marched to this place, which he 
found extremely strong, both by nature and art; nevertheless, he 
assailed it at once in two different quarters. The enemy stood 
their ground for a time, but at length gave way before the onset 
of our men, and abandoned the town by the opposite side. A 



chap, l] SUBMISSION OF THE BRITONS. 13 

great number of cattle were found there, and many of the enemy 
were slain or taken prisoners in the pursuit." 

It will be seen by reference to a map that Caesar had now 
received the submission of a very large tract of country, extending 
from sea to sea, and completely surrounding the country of the 
Cantii, in which he had first landed. All these tribes seem to 
have bargained for protection against Cassivellaunus, and it is 
probable that they had been all more or less brought under his 
rule. This had been the case also with Cantium, or Kent, which 
was then ruled by four kings, or chiefs, named by Caesar, 
Cingetorix, Carvilius, Taximagulus, and Segonax. When Caesar 
marched across the Thames, Cassivellaunus, driven from his own 
country, seems to have formed the project of cutting him off from 
the coast, and, marching into Kent, he sent to the four Kentish 
chiefs just mentioned his orders to assemble their forces immedi- 
ately, and join him in surprising the naval camp of the Romans. 
This attack was, like so many others, unsuccessful ; the assailants 
were beaten from the camp with considerable slaughter, and a 
young chief of consideration, named Lugotorix, was taken prisoner. 
This action convinced Cassivellaunus that it was in vain to contend 
with his irregular warriors against the discipline of the Roman 
veterans ; and now, finding that even his own subjects were 
disaffected to him and had made their peace with the invaders, he 
also, through the intermediation of the Attrebatian Commius, 
offered to submit. His proposals were accepted, for Caesar was 
now anxious, for various reasons, to return to Gaul ; and having 
agreed upon a tribute which the Britons were to pay annually to 
the Roman people, and given his injunction to Cassivellaunus not 
to make war upon M andubratius or the Trinobantes, who were 
naturally supposed to have incurred his hatred by their being the 
first to submit, Caesar led his legions back to Gaul, carrying with 
him the hostages which he had taken from the British chiefs as 
pledges for their fulfilment of the terms of the treaty. 

Such is Caesar's account of his exploits in Britain, which have 
every appearance of being truthful, although we have no other 
authority to test them by. His descriptions are much too indefinite 
to enable us to trace with any certainty the line of his march, and 
it is but a waste of time with so few data to attempt to fix the sites 
of his camps or battle-fields. There can be little doubt that the 
Romans landed somewhere on the line of coast between Folkestone 



14 THE BRITONS. [chap. i. 

and Sandwich, but as that coast is known to have undergone great 
changes since that period, it would be unsafe to rely on his 
description at the present day. The river on the banks of which 
he found the Britons posted is supposed to have been the Stour. 
We can hardly doubt that his subsequent march lay along the 
edge of the Weald, perhaps along the vale of Maidstone. The 
place at which the Romans crossed the Thames was fixed by a 
tradition which existed in the time of Bede, when the stakes, said 
to have been those which defended the river, remained,* at a place 
now called Cowey Stakes, near Chertsey, in Surrey. The strong- 
hold of Cassivellaunus, which the Roman soldiers carried by storm, 
has been conjectured with much less probability to have stood on 
the spot afterwards occupied by the Roman city of Yerulaniium 
(near St. Alban's). Other sites have been suggested, but we 
willingly pass over such vague and useless conjectures to confine 
ourselves as much as possible to facts. 

Caesar's expedition to Britain was looked upon as one of the 
most remarkable events of the time, and from this moment the 
distant western island was a common theme for poetry and 
declamation. The victorious commander w 7 as looked upon as one 
who had carried the Roman arms into a new world — penitus toto 
divisos orbe Britannos — and his countrymen listened eagerly to the 
account brought home by their armies of these hitherto unknown 
peoples. Caesar evidently gained the best information he could 
on the manners of the Britons, and his brief description of the 
island and its inhabitants is apparently given at least with good 
faith. He knew that the island was in its general form triangular, 

* Tradition?, even of the time of Bede, are not of much value, unless well supported 
"by other circumstances. The words of this writer, after giving the account from 
Caesar of the fortifying of the river with stakes, are, " the remains of which stakes 
are to he seen there to this day ; and it appears to the observer as though the 
several stakes — each ahout the thickness of a man's thigh, and cased with lead — 
were fixed immoveahly in the bed of the river," — (quarum vestigia sudium 
ibidem usque hodie visuntur, et mdetur inspectantibus quod singula*, earum ad- 
modum, humani femoris grosses et circumfusai plumbo immobiliter kcereant in 
profundum fluminis infixce. Bedae Hist. Eecl. i. 3.) Bede's account of these 
stakes is probably correct ; but, as it is not likely that in the hurry of a sudden 
defence, like that against Caesar's march, the Britons would have the time to erect 
posts of this magnitude, and case them with lead, we are justified in supposing that 
the stakes existing in Bede's time were a Roman work of a later period connected 
in some way with the navigation or fishery of the Thames, which we cannot now 
explain, and that they had nothing to do with Caesar's passage of the river. 



chap, i.] CESAR'S DESCRIPTION OF BRITAIN. 15 

and he was sufficiently well informed of the comparative propor- 
tions of its different sides. He knew that another island, which 
he reckoned to be half the size of Britain, and which he called 
Hibernia (Ireland), lay to the west of Britain, and he placed 
between these an isle named Mona (Anglesea or Man). He 
speaks more doubtfully of other islands, of smaller dimensions, 
with a more northerly position. The inhabitants of the interior 
of Britain, according to the traditionary information gained by 
Caesar, were the original inhabitants of the island, while the south- 
eastern coasts were inhabited by Belgic colonies, who, as he 
informs us, had given to the different petty states (civitates) of 
Britain, the name of those from which they came. This state- 
ment is corroborated by the list of British tribes given by subse- 
quent writers, in which the Hedui of Somersetshire, the Morini 
of Dorset, the Senones of Hampshire, the Rhemi (another name 
of the Bibroci) of Berkshire and Surrey, the Attrebates, stretching 
from the former county into Hampshire, the Cimbri of the borders 
of Devon, the Parisii on the eastern coast of the island, had all their 
representatives in Gaul. The people of Cantium (Kent) were the 
most civilised of all the British tribes, and in their manners bore a 
strong resemblance to their Gallic neighbours. The maritime 
districts were essentially corn countries, for it was the Belgic settlers 
who introduced agriculture ; the wild tribes of the interior did not 
cultivate the earth, but they lived on milk and flesh, and clothed 
themselves with skins. All the Britons, we are assured by Caesar, 
stained themselves with a blue dye made from woad, to give them 
a more terrible appearance in battle ; and they wore their hair 
long, and shaved every part of the body but the head and upper 
lip. A sentiment of national pride has led many writers to doubt 
the truth of Caesar's account of the prevalence of polygamy among 
the Britons, and he was probably speaking only of the maritime 
districts when he tells us with a tone of wonder of their numerous 
population, and of the frequency of buildings, which resembled 
those of the Gauls. Cattle were very abundant. But they had 
no money, using in place of it pieces of brass or iron, reduced to cer- 
tain standard weight. * White lead was procured in the midland 
districts, and iron was found, though not very abundant, in the 

* "Utuntur ant aere aut taleis ferreis ad cerium pondus examinatis pro nurnrno." 
— Csesar, Bell. Gall. lib. v. c. 10. 



16 THE BRITONS. [chap i. 

districts bordering on the sea. Brass, Caesar tells us, was imported 
from abroad. The island produced timber of every kind, except 
beech and fir. 

Such was Britain as known to Julius Caesar. Two nearly con- 
temporary writers, Strabo the geographer, and the historian 
Diodorus Siculus, have supplied us with some information omitted 
by him, and probably obtained from subsequent communications 
with the island. These authors describe the island as being for 
the most part flat and woody, having however " many strong places 
on hills." The produce, they tell us, consisted of corn and cattle, 
gold, silver, and iron, with skins, slaves, and dogs of a superior 
breed for the chase. The British dogs were widely celebrated, 
and so strong and fierce that the Gauls are said to have used them 
in war. The aboriginal Britons are described as being tall of 
stature, and corpulent, but not well made. According to Strabo, 
although they used milk in great abundance, they were not ac- 
quainted with the art of making cheese, and they were total \ 
strangers to gardening and agriculture. Diodorus describes them 
as practising agriculture, gathering the corn and storing it up 
in the stalk in thatched houses, out of which " they plucked the 
old ears from day to day, and used them to make their food." 
Their houses, we are told, were mere temporary establishments, 
formed in the forests, by inclosing a space with felled trees, within 
which they made huts of reeds and logs, and sheds for their cattle, 
" not intended to remain long," (ov irpbs ttoXvv yjpovov). Caesar 
makes no allusion to the tin, which appears to have been the 
principal export of Britain in those remote ages ; but Strabo tells 
us that " the inhabitants of Britain who live near the Belerian 
promontory (the Land's End, Cornwall), are peculiarly hospitable, 
and, from the great resort of foreigners, more polished in manners. 
They prepare the tin, and show much skill in working the earth 
which produces it. This being of a stony nature and having 
earthy veins in every direction, they work their way into these 
veins, and so by means of water separate the fragments. These 
they bruise into small pieces, and convey to an island which lies 
in front of Britain, called Ictis [Wight? or perhaps an island on the 
Cornish coast] ; for at the great ebb of the tide the channel 
becomes dry, and they carry over the tin in large quantities on 
waggons. From Ictis the tin is purchased by^ native merchants, 
and transported to Gaul." The same writer -iells us that ivory 



chap, i.] ROMAN ACCOUNTS OF THE BRITONS.- 17 

bracelets, necklaces, vessels of glass, and such like small wares, 
were usually imported from Gaul into Britain. 

In comparing these writers, we have some difficulty in separating 
the characteristics of the maritime states from those which applied 
only to the tribes of the interior ; but it seems clear that the island 
was then inhabited by two very distinct races, differing no doubt 
in language as well as in manners. The country extending along 
the coast from the mouth of the Humber to Devonshire, and 
stretching inwardly perhaps through the modern counties of 
Hertford, Buckingham, and Berkshire, was possessed by tribes who 
had passed over from the Continent, and driven the aboriginal 
inhabitants into the interior. They were distinguished by a much 
higher civilisation, especially in Kent, which had probably been 
settled more recently than the others, and, although they had no 
towns properly so called, they had permanent dwellings, and were 
extensively employed in cultivating the land, The primitive 
Britons wandered over the interior of the island, driving their 
herds and flocks from pasture to pasture, having no fixed habita- 
tion, but throwing up temporary dwelling-places for security for 
themselves and their cattle — in fact, living precisely in the same 
manner as the wild Irish three centuries ago. In a few places 
accidental circumstances led the natives to adopt a more settled 
mode of life, and to become less barbarous. This was especially 
the case in Cornwall, where, from a remote period, the trade in 
the metals produced so abundantly in that district had, as Strabo 
says, brought them into a continued intercourse with merchants 
from foreign lands, but chiefly, it would appear, from Gaul. 

During the long period of a century, from the time of Caesar to 
that of Claudius, we have scarcely any information relating to the 
island of Britain. We have seen that, before Caesar left its shores, 
all the tribes in the south-east, from the Iceni or Cenimagni of 
Suffolk to the inhabitants of Hampshire, had agreed to acknow- 
ledge the supremacy of Borne. Among the chiefs of these tribes 
there appears to have arisen a sudden emulation of imitating 
Roman forms and manners — a sort of pride, as we might say, of 
wearing the livery of their masters. Britons now were seen not 
unfrequently in Rome, and travellers from Italy probably made 
their way through Gaul to visit the distant home of the strangers 
whose appearance in the south must always have excited curiosity. 
The feeling of eagerness for what was called friendship with Roma 



18 THE BRITONS. [chap. i. 

aeems to have soon spread into other parts of the island, and when 
Strabo was writing his Geography, British ambassadors were in 
Eome, bowing to the throne of Augustus. " At present," he says, 
" some of their princes have sent ambassadors to cultivate the 
friendship of Augustus Caesar, and have deposited offerings in 
the Capitol, thus bringing the whole island to be in friendly con- 
nection with the Romans." 

Among the various arts now imported from Rome was that of 
coining money. No evidence has yet been discovered to make us 
suspect the truth of Caesar's statement that when he visited the 
island, the Britons had no coinage ; but soon after that event 
mints were established in Britain, and we find numerous coins, 
many of which bear inscriptions in Roman characters. Most of 
these inscriptions evidently give us the names of British chiefs 
who, since their "friendship" with Rome, assume the title of reges, 
and they adopted the formula of the coinage of Augustus, CjEsar 
divi filius. The history of this coinage is still very obscure, but 
the earlier examples seem to make us acquainted with two distinct 
families of chiefs, both of which are connected with the different 
tribes who submitted to Caesar. The power which in Caesars 
time had been held by Cassivellaunus, appears to have descended 
to a prince named Tasciovanus, who was father of the (we may 
say) celebrated Cunobelinus or Cunobeline.* The latter, we 
know, had three sons, Adminius, Caratacus or Caractacus, and 
Togodumnus. Another, and apparently, contemporary (or nearly 
contemporary) family of British kings, named Eppillus (or Ippillus) 
Veric (Viric, or Beric), and a name of which only the first syllable 
Tine is known, are described on a number of coins as sons of a 
British chief named Comius. f There is no necessity for believing 
that the latter was the Commius whose name occurs in Caesar's 

* The legend on the coins of Cunoheline is cunobeltnus tasciovani f rex, in 
one or two instances complete, hut in general more or less abbreviated. I believe 
that it was Mr. Birch who pointed out the simple and natural explanation that f 
stood for the Latin filius. Mr. Beale Poste has given, in a series of papers in the 
Journal of the British Archaeological Association, a very different explanation of 
this and the whole series of the British coinage, supported by an ingenious train 
of argument, which, however, appears to me neither convincing nor satisfactory, as 
being founded too much on assumptions and suppositions. Like every other branch 
of antiquarianism or historical inquiry that is very imperfectly known, the coins of 
the ancient Britons furnish a wide field for speculative theory. 

+ The legends on the most perfect specimens are, eppillus comi f, veric com 

F REX, and TING COM F REX. 



chap, l] CUNOBELINUS. 19 

transactions with the British chiefs. The coinage of Tasciovanus 
and of Cunobeline was very numerous, and it furnishes us with 
another piece of very important information, for it appears from 
their inscriptions that after the Britons had become more inti- 
mately acquainted with their Roman allies they began to imitate 
them in building stationary towns. The coins of Tasciovanus 
were struck at Verlamium, as it is spelt on the coins, which was 
no doubt the capital of that prince ; his son Cunobeline fixed his 
chief residence at Camulodunum (Colchester, in Essex), on the 
borders of the Iceni, who acknowledged his power, the name 
of which also is impressed on his money.* The coins of the sons 
of Comius bear no indication of the place where they were minted, 
but it seems probable from the localities in which they have been 
found, that Eppillus ruled in Kent, and that Veric and Tine. . . 
were joint or rival chiefs for perhaps one succeeded the other] in 
Sussex and Hampshire. 

During the reigns of Augustus and Tiberius, making together 
a period of nearly eighty years, the British states which had 
submitted to Julius Caesar were left in that position of friendship 
or alliance with Rome which we have already described, and 
history tells us nothing of their condition or of the actions of 
their chiefs. We know that Cunobelinus, who has been made 
familiar to every English ear by Shakespeare under the name of 
Cymbeline, was living in the time of the latter of the two 
emperors just mentioned, but the stories of that chiefs inter- 
course with Augustus, resting on no early authority, are evidently 
monkish fables. The very numerous coinage of Cunobeline, and 
its superior execution, show that he was a powerful and distin- 
guished prince ; yet war and sedition prevailed among the tribes 
under his command, and in his latter years, the rivalry among 
his own sons arose to such a height that he was obliged to banish 
one of them, iVdminius, from his court. Adminius, with a few of 

* It has been conjectured, that one or two legends, not vet understood, may he 
names of towns. A coin hearing the name tascio (for Tasciovanus or Tasciovani) 
has sego on the reverse, which some interpret as Segontinm, the name of a town, 
while others make it Segonax, the name of a chief, perhaps a son of Tasciovanus. 
It has, in a similar manner, been suggested that calle, vricon, solido, and cun, 
found on coins most of which appear to have belonged to Tasciovanus and Cunobelin, 
indicate towns named Calleva, Uriconium, Solidunum, and Cunetio. In the first 
of these, the word rex, joined with calle, seems to prove that it is the name of an 
individual; and the others are far from certain. 

c2 



20 THE BRITONS. [chap. i. 

his adherents, hurried to Eome, and claimed the protection of 
Caligula, who had now succeeded to the imperial throne. The 
British refugees were received as vassals of the Empire, and 
were exhibited in triumph to the Romans, and Caligula having 
placed himself at the head of an army, marched to the coast of 
Gaul with the declared intention of restoring Adminius and 
reducing Britain to a province. But this vaunted expedition 
^nded ingloriously ; instead of passing over into Britain, the 
Roman soldiers were ordered to gather shells on the beach, and 
they were then led back to Rome to triumph in what were called 
the " spoils of the ocean." 

In the meanwhile, Britain seems to have been more and more 
disturbed with civil strife. As far as we can understand by a 
comparison of the slight notices preserved by the Roman 
annalists, with the yet imperfectly explained British coins, the 
sons of Cunobeline, who was now dead, were oppressing the sons 
of Comius. One of the latter, called by Dio Cassius, Bericus, 
probably the Veric of the coins, was compelled to fly from the 
island, and took refuge at the court of Claudius, to whom he 
explained the state of Britain and the facility with which, at that 
moment, it might be conquered. We are told that the Britons 
sent to Rome to demand that the fugitives should be delivered 
up, and that the refusal was accompanied with recriminations on 
the irregularity with which the islanders had of late paid their 
tribute. Claudius, anxious to deserve a triumph by some military 
exploit, listened willingly to the representatives of the fugitive 
chief, and found an excuse for hostilities in the complaints of the 
Britons. An army was collected in the spring of the year 43, 
under the command of a senator of distinction, named Aulus 
Plautius ; but the legions mutinied at the prospect of an expedi- 
tion which seemed to expose them to the perils of the unknown 
ocean, and it was not until after much labour and anxiety that their 
fears were calmed, and they were persuaded at length to embark. 
They landed on the shores of Britain in the autumn of the same 
year. The Britains, who seem to have formed no combined plan 
of resistance, retired to the woods and marshes, and it was some 
time before the Romans could discover their retreat, and bring 
them to battle. At length, however, the Britons ventured to 
tight, not collectively, but in divisions, and Plautius defeated first 
Caractacus (who is named by Dio Cassius, our authority for these 



chap, l] THE EXPEDITION OF CLAUDIUS. 21 

events, Cataracus), and then his brother Togodumnus. In 
pursuing these chiefs, the Eoman commander had overrun the 
south of England as far as Oxfordshire and Gloucestershire, the 
country of the Dobuni, who were at this time under the dominion 
of the Catuellani, the hereditary tribe of Cassivellaunus, and pro- 
bably of Cunobeline. The Dobuni submitted, and Plautius 
raised a fortress and left a garrison to hold them in subjection, 
and then pursued the sons of Cunobeline. Among the distin- 
guished officers who served in Britain under Plautius were two future 
emperors, Vespasian, and his son Titus. In one of the obstinate 
engagements with the Britons, which occurred after the advance 
of the Romans from the country of the Dobuni, the life of the 
father was saved only by the bravery of his son. It was thus in 
our island, as it has been well observed, that the arms were 
trained, which were destined to be the instrument of God's 
vengeance against the stubborn people of Israel. The sons of 
Cunobeline, after having retreated before the Romans towards the 
west, seem to have doubled upon their pursuers, and to have 
sought refuge in the marshes which covered the lower part of 
Essex towards the mouth of the Thames. Here also they were 
pursued and attacked, and Togodumnus, one of the brothers, was 
slain in battle. The death of their chief seems to have provoked 
the Britons to a more obstinate resistance, and the Roman com 
mander found himself obliged to act upon the defensive. He 
sent information of his position to the emperor, who hastened to 
command in person his legions in Britain. On the arrival of 
Claudius, they again crossed the Thames, defeated the Britons in 
battle, and took possession of Camulodunum, the royal seat of 
Cunobeline. The Britains now submitted, and the emperor 
hastened back to Rome to celebrate his triumph, leaving Aulus 
Plautius in command of the army. The emperor and his son 
were both honoured by the senate with the title of Britannicus, 
and a coin was subsequently struck to commemorate the conquest 
of the Britons. 

That conquest, however, was as yet very imperfect, and 
included only the south-eastern district of the island. But a 
foreign power, like that of Rome, established in a hostile manner 
in one district of Britain, could not long remain without excuses 
for attacking the others. The south-west division of the island, 
extending from Hampshire to the extremity of Cornwall, was 



22 THE BRITONS. [chap. r. 

held by two powerful tribes, the Belgse and the Damnonii or 
Dumnonii. Both appear to have been late settlers from the 
opposite continent, and to have been able to resist successfully 
the influence of Cunobeline. In retaliation for assistance, which 
they had probably given against the Romans in the war with 
Caractacus and Togodumnus, their country was now invaded by 
Vespasian with the second legion, and after an obstinate and 
apparently a long struggle, in which Vespasian fought nearly thirty 
battles and captured twenty of the British oppida, or fortified posts, 
these two tribes, with the adjacent island of Vectis (Wight), were 
reduced to submission."* 

Previous to the year 50, Aulus Plautius was recalled, and he 
seems to have left the Roman legions engaged in war with the 
Britons. It was now the tribes of the interior who had taken up 
arms against the invaders, and were making inroads upon the 
tribes who had submitted to them, considering their submission 
as a just cause for attacking and plundering them. They had 
chosen for this attack the moment when the Roman army in 
Britain was without a commander-in-chief, and when the imme- 
diate approach of winter promised them a sufficient period of 
impunity to enable them to secure their booty. In the midst of 
this confusion, a new governor or proprcetor of Britain arrived 
from Rome. His name was Ostorius Scapula, a good soldier, 
and a man of eminent abilities. He had no sooner landed than he 
collected such troops as were at hand, and, falling upon the 
Britons unexpectedly, defeated them with great slaughter, and 
drove them out of the Roman province. He then proceeded to 
inclose and protect the latter with a line of forts from the Avon 
to the Severn, f from which it appears that the whole country 
within these rivers, from the farthest coast of Norfolk to the 

* Our knowledge of this war is taken chiefly from Suetonius, who says of 
Vespasian, " Inde in Britanniam translatus, tricies cum hoste conflixit, duas vali- 
dissimas gentes, superque xx. oppida, et insulam Vectem Britanniae proximam, in 
deditionem redegit." From the mention of the Island of Vectis, and other 
circumstances, there seems little reason to doubt that the duce gentes were the 
Belgse and the Damnonii, although it is not go clear whether the thirty (or, 
according to Eutropius, thirty-two) battles did not include four or five battles 
Vespasian is known to have fought in the previous war. 

•f* ** Cinctosque castris Antonam et Sabrinam fluvios cohibere parat." — Tacitus, 
The Antona is usually considered to be the Nen, but it seems more probable that 
it here signifies the Avon. I understand that some editions or MSS. read Aufona. 



chap, l] PROPRIETORSHIP OF OSTORIUS SCAPULA. 23 

Land's-End, and thence to the extreme point of Kent, had at this 
time, voluntarily or by compulsion, submitted to the power of 
Home. 

Among those who had submitted voluntarily was the extensive 
and powerful tribe of the Iceni, who occupied the modem counties 
of Suffolk, Norfolk, Cambridge, and Huntingdon. The Iceni 
were jealous of the attempt of the Romans to establish their power 
by these forts, and, confident in their own strength, which had 
not yet been tried with the Romans, they put themselves at the 
head of a confederacy, with some of the neighbouring tribes, and 
when Ostorius marched against them, they prepared for battle in 
a place which they had enclosed with ramparts of earth, with a 
narrow entrance to hinder the approach of cavalry. * But this was 
of little avail against the discipline of their opponents, and 
Ostorius, with only a few cohorts of auxiliaries, attacked them in 
their entrenchments, made a breach for the entrance of his 
cavalry, and defeated them with great slaughter. The Iceni now 
returned to their obedience, and other tribes, which had before 
hesitated, submitted. 

Beyond the boundary which Ostorius had formed by his line of 
forts, the interior of the island was inhabited by tribes who were 
fiercer and less civilised than the southern nations. The chief of 
these was the great tribe of the Brigantes, extending through the 
mountainous and wooded districts from the borders of Lincoln- 
shire, through Yorkshire, Lancashire, Westmoreland, Cumberland, 
and Northumberland. The lesser tribes, such as the Cornavii and 
Coritavi, which were intermediate between the tribes subject to 
the Romans and the Brigantes, probably acknowledged the supe- 
riority of the latter. The Brigantes seem to have been so much 
discouraged by the defeat of the Iceni, that they sought the 
alliance of, or rather bought their peace with, the Romans. 
Ostorius, relieved from the hostilities of the various tribes just 
mentioned, carried his army into Shropshire and North Wales, 
and had proceeded as far as the tribe of the Cangii on the shores 
of the Irish sea, when he was recalled by a revolt of the Brigantes, 
which was apparently partial and easily subdued. The only 
formidable enemy now in arms on the borders of the Roman 

* " Locum pugnae delegere, septum agresti aggere, et aditu angusto ne pervius 
equiti foret." — Tacitus, Annal., lib. xii., c. 31. 



24 THE BRITONS. [chap. t. 

possessions, was the tribe of the Silures, which had rallied under 
Caractacus, the defeated son of Cunobeline, who, after various 
turns of fortune, had been elected the chief of this tribe, and 
entered into a confederacy with the Ordovices of North Wales. 

After the defeat of the Brigantes, Ostorius gave his attention to 
the interior arrangement of the province committed to his charge. 
He made Camulodunum, which was raised to the rank of a colonial 
the head-quarters of the Roman power, and established there a 
numerous body of veterans, among whom the conquered lands were 
distributed. The city was adorned with public buildings, and 
more especially with a temple dedicated to Claudius, and was 
increased in size and importance. Having settled these things: 
to his satisfaction, Ostorius marched against Caractacus. That 
chief, leaving the more open country of the Silures to be overrun 
by the enemy, had withdrawn into the wilder country of the 
Ordovices, where he chose a strong position, difficult of access 
even without the assistance of artificial defences. On the more 
accessible parts of the high hills he threw up a kind of rampart 
of stone, while below and in front was a river difficult to ford.* 
Here the British chief awaited the attack of his enemies, or, 
perhaps, amused himself with the belief that his stronghold was 
too formidable to be attempted, for he had with him his family, 
consisting of a wife and daughter. The Britons, thus posted, and 
excited by the example and exhortations of their leader, presented 
a formidable appearance to the Eoman legionaries, protected as 
they were by the river which ran before them, and the steep 
declivity which rose in their way. " But the soldiers," to use the 
words of Tacitus, " were clamorous for the attack, crying out that 
their valour would overcome all opposition ; and the inferior 
officers, breathing the same sentiments, gave additional courage, 
to the troops. Ostorius, after reconnoitering the ground to see 
which parts were impenetrable and which accessible, led on the 
eager soldiers, and with much difficulty crossed the river. When 

* cs Tunc montibus arduis, et si qua clementer accedi poterant in modum valli 
saxa praestruit ; et praefluebat amnis vado incerto, catervaque majorum pro muni- 
mentis eonsisterant." — Tacitus. A lofty hill on the river Ony, near the confluence 
of the Clun and the Teme, in the south-western part of Shropshire, still called 
Caer Caradoc, has been supposed to be the scene of the final defeat of Caractacus, 
but this is very uncertain. From the account of Tacitus, the position of the 
Britons on this occasion would seem to have been part of a mountain range. 



chap, l] FIXAL DEFEAT OF CAEACTACUS. 25 

they came to the rampart, while the enemy threw their javelins at 
a distance, our soldiers suffered most, and many were slain ; but 
when ours closed their ranks and placed their shields over them, 
they soon tore down the rough irregular piles of stones, and 
attacking the enemy on level ground obliged them to fly to the 
hills. Thither also both the light and heavy armed soldiers fol- 
lowed, the former attacking them with their spears, the latter in 
a dense body, till the Britons, who had neither armour nor 
helmets to protect their persons, were thrown into disorder, and 
if they made my resistance to the auxiliaries, they were cut in 
pieces by the swords and spears of the legionaries, and when they 
turned upon the latter, the auxiliaries destroyed them with their 
sabres and javelins." * 

This victory w T as a decisive one. The wife and daughter of 
Caractacus fell into the hands of the conquerors, and two brothers 
who had shared his fortunes submitted. Caractacus himself 
escaped from the battle, and fled to the tribe of the Brigantes, 
from whose queen, Cartismandua, he sought protection ; but this 
princess, anxious to remain in friendship with the Bomans, threw 
him into chains and delivered him to his enemies. The dignified 
appearance of Caractacus and his family at the court of Borne, as 
related by the historian Tacitus, is the theme of every schoolboy. 
The loss of the leader did not discourage the brave Silures, who, 
trusting to their woods, continued to carry on a fierce warfare 
against the Bomans, cutting off their stragglers, and in more 
than one instance nearly overwhelming the legions which were 
left to erect fortresses in their country. " After this," says Tacitus, 
" there was incessant fighting, generally of a predatory character; 
sometimes the armies would meet in the woods, at other times in 
the midst of marshes, according as chance or their own headlong 
valour directed ; many an engagement took place by accident, 
while others were the result of stratagem and military manoeuvre ; 
many an expedition was undertaken to revenge some previous 
defeat, while others had plunder for their object; and they were 
sometimes undertaken by order of the generals, and at other times 
without their knowledge. The Silures were the most obstinate 
in their resistance, and their obstinacy was increased by the threat 

* " Et si anxiliaribus resisterent, gladiis ac pilis legionariorurn, sihac vertercnt^ 
spatbis et hastis auxiliariuin sternebantur." 



26 THE BRITONS. [chap. i. 

of the Boman commander, that he would root the very name of 
the Silures out of Britain, as had been done with the Sigambri, 
who had been transported to Gaul. These words enraged the 
Silures, who assailed and cut off two cohorts of the auxiliaries, and 
stirred up the other tribes to revolt by giving them a large share 
of their booty, and thus exciting their love of plunder. In the 
midst of these disorders, Ostorius, overcome by the troubles with 
which he was surrounded, departed this life ; and the Britons 
rejoiced at his death, not merely as if they had gained a battle, but 
rather as if the war was entirely at an end." 

An old officer, Avitus Didius G alius, was appointed to succeed 
Ostorius as propraetor, and hastened to Britain to take the com- 
mand. Before he arrived, a Roman legion had been defeated by 
the Silures, but he immediately marched against them, and gave 
them in their turn a severe defeat. Then, unequal to the arduous 
character of this war, Didius left it to be conducted by his sub- 
ordinate officers, and relapsed into the inactivity which was more 
in accordance with his advanced age. It was probably in this 
war that the second legion, which had had Vespasian for its 
commander, was established at Isca (Caerleon, on the Usk). 

At the time of the arrival of Didius in Britain, a civil war arose 
among the Brigantes, which threatened to add to the embarrass- 
ments of the Romans. I have already mentioned that this 
powerful tribe was now governed by a queen, named Cartismandua, 
who proved a woman of high spirit and some abilities. Her 
conduct with regard to Caractacus had naturally drawn upon her 
the hatred of those who were most hostile to the Romans, and 
this included many of her own subjects. She had married one of 
her chiefs, named Venusius, who, as far as we can gather by the 
brief account of Tacitus, quarrelled with his wife because she 
would not surrender to him the supreme power over her tribe, and 
he then placed himself at the head of a party in the state who cried 
out against the indignity of men living under the rule of a woman. 
Cartismandua, whose party appears, at first, to have been the 
strongest, claimed the protection of the Romans, and her husband, 
who seems to have been driven from among the Brigantes, endea- 
voured to make himself popular among the other tribes, by now 
placing himself at the head of the party who were in arms against the 
invaders. It was this man who, commanding the Silures and their 
allies, had defeated the Roman legion commanded by Manlius 



chap, l] SUETONIUS PAULLINUS. 27 

Yalens before the arrival of the new propraetor Didius. After this 
success, Venusius, collecting his allies, and joined by the party of 
the Brigantes who were opposed to the Roman influence, pro- 
ceeded to make war on his wife Cartismandua, who had crushed 
the first attempt against her government, and captured and put 
to death a brother and other relatives of Venusius. A Eoman army 
was immediately sent to assist the queen of the Brigantes, and 
in a well-contested battle overcame the Britons who were in arms 
against her. About the same time another Roman legion, com- 
manded by Csesius Nasica, obtained a decisive victory over an 
army of Britons. 

Thus the administration of Didius had not been entirely with- 
out credit, when, towards the end of the year 58, he was replaced 
by Veranius, who made one or two successful expeditions against 
the Silures ; but he died before he had been a year in Britain, 
at a moment when the greatest expectations were formed from his 
military talents. He was immediately succeeded by Caius Suetonius 
Paullinus, one of the most warlike and skilful of the imperial 
generals. The Roman arms had experienced a reverse (gravis 
clades), before the arrival of Suetonius, and he found the districts 
from the Silures to the Brigantes in great disorder. 

It seems that in Britain, as in Gaul, as foreign intercourse and 
consequent civilisation advanced, the head seat of the old Druidi- 
cal religion was removed more and more into the remoter districts, 
until in the latter country it established itself on the Armorican 
coast and in the Channel Islands, and in the former it retreated 
into the distant island of Mona (Anglesea), equally arrested in its 
further advances by the waves of the ocean. We gather from the 
Roman historians that it was the Druids of Mona who excited the 
Ordovices and the Silures and their other allies to obstinate re- 
sistance, and it was in that island that were collected together 
the bravest and bitterest enemies of the foreign invaders, ever 
ready to issue forth and incite their countrymen to insurrection. 
Suetonius Paullinus soon discovered the influence which Mona 
exercised against him, and he determined to reduce it to obedi- 
ence to Rome. For this purpose he marched his forces to the 
coast of Caernarvon, and having caused a number of flat-bottomed 
vessels to be constructed, he placed the foot soldiers in them, and 
ordered the cavalry to try to ford the strait which divided the 
island from the main land ; or, if they found this impossible, to go 



28 THE BRITONS. [chap. i. 

in the boats and tow their horses after them. When they ap- 
proached the island, an unusual scene presented itself to their 
view. " The shore of the island was lined with the hostile army, 
in which were women dressed in dark and dismal garments, with 
their hair streaming to the wind, hearing torches in their hands, 
and running like furies up and down the ranks. Around stood 
the Druids, with hands spread to heaven, and uttering dreadful 
prayers and imprecations. The novelty of the sight struck our 
soldiers with dismay, so that they stood as if petrified, a mark 
for the enemy's javelins. At length, animated by the exhortations 
of their general, and encouraging one another not to fear an army 
of women and fanatics, they rushed upon the enemy, bore down all 
before them, and involved them in their own fires. The troops 
of the enemy were completely defeated, a garrison placed in the 
island, and the groves which had been the consecrated scenes of 
the most barbarous superstitions, were levelled with the ground. 
It had been their practice to sacrifice on the altars prisoners taken 
in war, and to divine the pleasure of their gods by inspecting 
human entrails." Suetonius w 7 as called off from this expedition 
by the most alarming revolt of the Britons in the Roman province 
that had hitherto occurred. 

The Romans were seldom conciliatory or generous towards the 
provinces they had conquered, and the empire was now ruled by 
Nero, under whom those provinces were delivered to the worst of 
tyranny, by governors whose only principle of action was to grind 
the unfortunate people under their charge in order to contribute to 
the avarice and luxury of Rome. The more distant the province, the 
more cruelly was it oppressed, and Tacitus, in the account he gives 
us of the consultations among the tributary chiefs in Britain on their 
wrongs, affords a sufficient view of the manner in which this island 
was treated. " They reflected," he says, " on the miseries at- 
tendant on servitude, and when they came to compare their 
several injuries, they were heightened tenfold by putting them 
together. It was clear that passive submission would but encou- 
rage their oppressors to proceed to still greater lengths. Instead 
of one king, as formerly, they had now two, the lieutenant and 
his procurator ; the former exercising his tyranny over their per- 
sons, the latter over their goods. Whether their governors were 
at harmony together or at variance, it was alike fatal to their un- 
happy subjects ; the one oppressed them by his troops and his 



chap, i.] KING COGIDUNUS. 29 

centurions, the other by his insolence and extortion. Nothing 
was now safe from their avarice, or from their licentiousness. In 
battle it was the bravest or strongest man who carried of the 
spoil ; but here the meanest spirited and most contemptible of 
men entered and pillaged their houses, carried away their children, 
and made them enlist in the Roman armies as if they were ready 
to die for anything but their country. If the Britons would but 
consider their own numbers, they would find that the Roman 
troops who were among them were but a paltry and inconsiderable 
force. . . . Their country, with their wives and parents, should 
be so many motives for them to support a war, to which their 
enemies were urged only by avarice and luxury, and the armies 
of Rome would no doubt retire as Caesar had done, if the Britons 
would but imitate the bravery of their ancestors, and not be dis- 
couraged by the issue of one or two battles," 

It was usual, during the earlier period of the Roman conquest, 
to leave the British chiefs in nominal command of their tribes, 
with more or less power and wealth, according to their tried obe- 
dience and devotion to their imperial masters. In Cogidunus 
or Cogidubnus, a chief of the Regni of Sussex, we have an instance 
of a British prince who was so faithful to the Romans, that he 
was allowed to enjoy his dignity and title of rex or king from the 
reign of Claudius to that of Trajan, and whose name appeared 
down to the latest period of Roman rule on an inscription as one 
of those who embellished the city of Regnum (Chichester) with 
public buildings.* Others, who, although they acknowledged the 

* In the earlier part of the last century, as some workmen were digging a cellar 
in a house at the corner of St. Martin's -lane and North-street, in Chichester, they 
came to the massive walls of a building, near which lay, with the inscribed face 
downwards, a mutilated stone, with the following inscription : — 
. EPTVNO . ET . MINERVAE 
TEMPLVM 
. . . SALVTE . DO . . . DIVINAE 
AVCTORITA . . . CLAVD. 
. . . GIDVBNI . R . LEGA . AVG . IN . BRIT. 
. . . GIVM . FABROR . . . QVI . IN . EO 
. . . D . S . D . DONANTE . ABEAM 
. . . ENTE . PVDENTTNI . FIL. 

which has been read thus: "Neptuno et Minervse templum pro salute domus 
divinae ex auctoritate Tiberii Claudii Cogidubni regis legati augusti in Britannia 
collegium fabrorum et qui in eo sunt de suo dedicaverunt donante aream 
Pudente Pudentini filio/ 1 This inscription refers, no doubt, to the same British 



30 THE BRITONS. [chap. i. 

supremacy of the Romans, had not shown the same submissive 
spirit, were treated more oppressively. The Iceni, as we have 
seen, were kept in obedience only by fear, and their chief, or 
king (as he was called), Prasutagus, who had hoarded up immense 
wealth, dying in the reign of Nero, when the licence of the impe- 
rial officers in the provinces was at its height, attempted to secure 
protection for his family by leaving one half of his riches to the 
emperor, and the other half to his two daughters. But he was 
no sooner dead, than the Roman officers took possession of his 
kingdom, and treated it as a conquered province. His queen, 
Boadicea, a woman of high spirit, resisted or expostulated, which 
only provoked the haughty Romans to act with greater brutality. 
The queen was publicly scourged ; her two daughters were vio- 
lated ; and other members of the royal family, or relatives of the 
deceased chief, were thrown into prison, and even sold as slaves. 
It is not to be wondered at if the Iceni rose in arms to avenge 
their wrongs, and the Trinobantes of Essex immediately joined 
in the revolt. The latter seem to have been goaded into rebel- 
lion by the insolence of their Roman masters in Camulodunum. 
According to Tacitus, " they looked upon the temple which the 
Romans had built and dedicated to Claudius, as a kind of citadel 
to hold them in perpetual bondage, and the priests who celebrated 
religious worship in it as so many harpies who lived upon the 
substance of the natives. It would be no difficult task, they 
thought, to destroy the Roman colony, for it had no fortifications 
to protect it, an omission into which the Romans were led by 
paying more attention to the gratification of their luxury than to 
provide for their public safety." 

Before the insurrection broke out, the Romans appear to have 
been alarmed by unequivocal indications of an approaching storm, 
and we are told that there were not wanting prodigies to warn 
them of their danger. The account which Tacitus gives of these 
is curious, as throwing some light on the condition of the town 
and country. " At Camulodunum," he tells us, " the statue of 
Nero fell to the ground, and turned its back where the face had 

prince mentioned by Tacitus as receiving favours from Claudius, and who appears 
by it to have taken the name of the emperor in addition to his own. " Qusedam 
civitates Cogiduno regi erant donatse ; is ad nostram usque memoriam fidissimus 
remansit, vetere ac jam pridem recepta populi Romani consuetudine ut haberet 
instrumenta servitutis et reges." — Taciti Agric, c. 14. 



chap, l] REVOLT OF BOADICEA. 31 

been, as if it fled before the enemy. Women were seen as if 
mad, singing wild songs, in which they foretold the destruction of 
the colony [perhaps they were native women, aware of the conspi- 
racy, and employed to create alarm]. Strange noises were heard 
in the house of assembly, and loud howlings in the theatre. In 
the estuary of the Thames there was an appearance like that of a 
sunken town. The sea assumed the colour of blood, and human 
forms appeared to be left on the shore by the ebbing tide . All these 
things were of a nature to encourage the Britons, whilst they 
overwhelmed the veterans with terror." The inhabitants of Camu- 
lodunum, in their alarm, applied for assistance to the procurator 
Catus Decianus, who commanded in the absence of Suetonius, but 
who appears to have slighted the warning. " He sent them only two 
hundred men, very imperfectly armed, and to these were added a 
small body of soldiers belonging to the town. The temple of 
Claudius was taken possession of by these troops, as a citadel, 
but their measures of defence were thwarted by those around 
them who were in the secret of the conspiracy ; so that they had 
neither dug a fosse nor cast up an earth rampart for protection, 
and the precaution, usual in such cases, of sending away the old 
men and the women, and retaining only the young and active, 
had been entirely neglected. They were, indeed, taken by sur- 
prise in time of profound peace, and found themselves suddenly 
surrounded by the barbarians. Everything but the temple was 
plundered and burnt at the first attack, and the temple itself, in 
which the soldiers had taken refuge, was captured after a siege of 
two days." 

The success of the attack on Camulodunum gave courage and force 
to the insurgents. It appears that the ninth legion, commanded by 
its lieutenant, Petilius Cerealis, had its stationary camp within 
the territory of the Trinobantes. Cerealis hurried to the relief 
of Camulodunum, but he arrived too late, and, rashly engaging 
the insurgents, he was entirely defeated, his infantry, comprising 
the great mass of the legion, was utterly destroyed, and the 
cavalry, with Cerealis himself, fled to their camp and shut them- 
selves up in their entrenchments. The alarm of the Romans was 
now so great, that the procurator Catus, fearing to expose himself 
to the resentment of the natives whom his own avarice had 
excited to revolt, deserted his post and fled ijato Gaul. 

Suetonius, engaged in the reduction of the distant island of 



32 THE BRITONS. [chap. i. 

Mona, heard of these alarming disorders, and hastened back. 
As he approached towards the head seat of the Eoman power in 
Britain, he found the whole country in arms and in possession of 
the insurgents. Nevertheless, " he marched through the midst 
of the enemy to Londinium (London), which was not yet honoured 
with the name of a colony, but considerable from the resort of 
merchants, and from its trade. Here, hesitating whether he 
should make that town the seat of war, he considered how weak 
the garrision was, and warned by the check which Petilius had 
incurred by his rashness, he determined to preserve the whole by 
sacrificing one town. Nor did the tears and lamentations of the 
people imploring his assistance prevent him from giving the 
signal for marching, though he received into his army all who 
chose to follow him. But all those whom the weakness of sex, 
or the infirmities of age, or attachment to the place, induced to 
stay behind, fell into the hands of the enemy. The same 
calamity befel the municipal town of Verulamium ; for the bar- 
barians, neglecting the fortified stations (castella) and garrisons, 
plundered the richer and more defenceless places, their principal 
object being booty. Seventy thousand citizens and allies are 
said to have perished in these places ; for they made no prisoners 
to sell or exchange them, according to the usual practice in war, 
but thought of nothing but slaughter, hanging, burning, and 
crucifying, as if to retaliate for former sufferings, and eager to 
quench their thirst for vengeance." 

The Eoman commander had now collected about ten thousand 
regular troops, consisting of the fourteenth legion, with the 
vexillarii of the twentieth, and the auxiliaries from the nearest 
military posts, and he determined to give battle to the numerous* 
but tumultuous hordes who followed the standard of Boadicea. 
" He made choice of a spot defended by defiles, and closed in the 
rear by a torest, as the safest position to receive an enemy who 
would make their attack in front, while the open plain before him 
relieved him from all fear of ambuscades. The legionaries were 
drawn up in many deep ranks, the light armed troops disposed 
around in companies, and the flanks covered with the cavalry. The 
British forces bounded about (exsultabant) in companies and troops, 
an innumerable multitude, and with so much confidence that they 
brought their women* to be witnesses of their victory, and placed 
them in waggons on the outer circuit of the plain. Boadicea, who 



chap, l] DEFEAT OF BOADICEA. 33 

rode with her daughters in a chariot, as she came to the several 
clans, with whom it was not unusual for a woman to command an 
army, told them that she considered herself not as the descendant 
of noble ancestors, possessed of sovereignty and great riches, but 
as one of the community, prepared to avenge the loss of liberty, 
the stripes inflicted upon her body, and the dishonour done to her 
daughters ; for the lusts of the Romans were risen to such a 
height, that neither their persons, their age, nor their chastity 
was safe. The gods, however, she said, favoured their just 
revenge ; the legion which had attempted an engagement was cut 
off; those who had escaped concealed themselves within their 
fortresses (castris) or were preparing for flight. The Roman army 
now opposed to them would never stand the shouts and clamour of 
so many thousands, much less their shock and fury. If they con- 
sidered the number of forces, or the causes of the war, they would 
resolve that day to conquer or die ; this was the last resource for 
her, a woman ; let the men, if they pleased, live and be slaves." 

This address of the British queen contains, at least, the senti- 
ments that actuated the Britons in this revolt, as they were well 
known to the contemporary Roman historian, who has placed it in 
her mouth. Suetonius also addressed his troops, urging them 
not to fear the immense numbers of their enemies, or to be 
alarmed at the dreadful shouts with which they were accustomed 
to march into battle. The legion at first acted on the defensive, 
protected by its position, until the fury of the first attack was 
exhausted. It then formed in a wedge, and marched steadily on 
the Britons, while the auxiliaries made the same movement, 
and the cavalry rushing down with their spears levelled, bore 
all before them. The Britons were soon routed with terrible 
slaughter, for the circle of waggons impeded their flight, and the 
Roman soldiers spared none, but massacred the women, and even 
the beasts. Eighty thousand Britains are said to have been slain 
on this fatal day, and then queen Boadicea, unwilling to survive 
the destruction of her country, put an end to her own life by 
taking poison.* 

The Iceni were utterly crushed in this revolt. The numbers 

* Our numismatists have ascribed to Boadicea certain British coins which hear 
the inscription bodvoc. I think too hastily ; for the history of the British queen 
is that of a hurried insurrection, suppressed immediately, and scarcely affording 
time for a distinctive coinage. Previous to the rising, she had no authority or 

D 



34 THE BRITONS. [chap, l 

assembled in the last disastrous battle, and the fact of their 
being accompanied with their women, shows that the tribes 
engaged in it had risen en masse, and their country was now left 
without defenders, and probably almost without inhabitants. 
Their lands were overrun and plundered by the Roman troops, 
and all the other tribes whose inclinations were known to be 
hostile or wavering, were ravaged by fire and sword. The troops 
were augmented by the arrival of two thousand legionaries, eight 
cohorts of auxiliaries, and a thousand horse from Germany; and 
out of these, the ninth legion, which had suffered so much, was 
recruited. Although the war lingered on for a time, the defeat 
of this insurrection had fixed so firmly the Roman yoke, that we 
hear no more of serious revolts in the conquered provinces, 
although from time to time an outbreak among the oppressed 
natives, furnished the excuse for destroying the families of their 
chiefs and reducing the natives to a more degrading state of slavery. 
The reduction of the rebellion of the Iceni led, however, to 
at least a temporary change of policy towards the Britons, 
and even the Roman soldiers seem to have been satiated with 
the wholesale slaughter. Suetonius Paullinus appears to have 
been a harsh and rigorous ruler, and his disinclination to show 
any lenity towards the conquered Britons is said to have been 
a subject of disputes between the general and the new procu- 
rator, Julius Classicianus, who had been sent as the successor of 
the fugitive Catus Decianus. Polycletus, an imperial agent, 
repaired to Britain to inquire into the state of the province, and 
it was probably his report that led soon after to the recal of 
Suetonius. He was succeeded by Petronius Turpilianus, a man 
who had just laid down the consulship, and whose only qualifi- 
cation mentioned by the historian, was a spirit of forbearance 
and lenity, which the commanders who had been accustomed to 
tyrannise over conquered nations, looked upon with contempt. 
The mild administration of this propraetor, however, soothed the 
wounds with which this distant province was bleeding, and seems 
to have wiped away the last traces of the ferocious struggle which 
had taken place under his predecessor. A short time before the 

power, and the miserable woman who was subject to the lash at the pleasure of 
her Roman masters, is not likely to have possessed a mint. Boduoc may have 
been some one of the British chiefs whose existence has not been recorded by 
history. 



chap, l] REVOLT OP THE BKIGANTES. 35 

death of Nero, Petronius resigned his office and was succeeded by 
Trebellius Maximus, who governed the province with equal 
moderation and affability. While the rest of the empire was 
torn by civil commotion, the province of Britain enjoyed unusual 
tranquillity, and was disturbed only by a quarrel between the pro- 
praetor and Roscius Ccelius, the lieutenant of the twentieth 
legion. As the soldiers seem in general to have taken part with 
Ccelius, this feud ended in the flight of Trebellius, who went 
alone and without followers to join the standard of. Vitellius, 
leaving Britain to be governed nominally by the lieutenants of the 
different legions, but really by Roscius Ccelius. Vitellius had 
already drawn from Britain a body of eight thousand troops, while 
Suetonius Paullinus had carried over the whole of the fourteenth 
legion to fight under the standard of Otho. 

When Vitellius had rid himself of his competitors, and secured 
the people, he sent to Britain, as propraetor, one of his imme- 
diate attendants, Vettius Bolanus, who carried back with him 
the fourteenth legion, which was in disfavour, because it had 
fought for one of the unsuccessful pretenders to the throne. 
Tacitus tells us that the government of Bolanus " was too mild 
for so fierce a province ; and that Agricola, who was still serving 
in Britain, checked the ardour of his own martial disposition, 
lest he should be suspected of disobedience or disaffection towards 
his commander-in-chief." The insecurity of the province was 
increased by the number of troops which were now draughted off 
to join in the new struggle for the empire between Vitellius and 
Vespasian. It was at this moment that symptoms of insubordi- 
nation again began to show themselves among the Britons. 
The insurrection began with the extensive tribe of the Brigantes, 
where the authority of Cartismandua appears to have been still 
supported by the Romans.* This imperious lady remained 
separated from her husband, and in contempt of him, she had 
taken to her bed his armour-bearer, Vellocatus, and deputed to 
him a part of her power. Many of her subjects were shocked by 
this scandalous proceeding, and Venusius soon raised a powerful 
party, and pursued the queen with so much vigour, that she was 

* From the way in which Tacitus introduces the history of Cartismandua and 
her husband in the Histories and the Annals, it appears somewhat confused, and it 
has been usual to regard the two notices as relating to one event. I think, 
however, that they are distinct, and I have treated them so in this sketch. 

D2 



THE BRITONS. [chap. 



only rescued with difficulty by a body of Roman troops after 
several battles. The revolt of the Brigantes had become so 
general, that the Romans were obliged for a moment to leave 
them in a state of independence with Venusius at their head. 

On the accession of Vespasian, various changes were made in 
the establishment in Britain. Petilius Cerealis, the commander 
of the ninth legion, who had incurred the signal disaster in the 
war against Boadicea, was sent to succeed Vettius Bolanus as 
propraetor, while an officer of great talents, both as a soldier and 
as a statesman, Julius Agricola, was appointed to the command of 
the twentieth legion, which had shown some unwillingness to 
acknowledge the new emperor. An affectionate friendship had 
long subsisted between Agricola and Cerealis, and they joined 
heartily in carrying on the war which had now broken out 
in Britain. But after several successful engagements with the 
Brigantes, by which a large portion of that tribe was reduced to 
obedience, Cerealis was recalled, and Julius Frontinus appointed 
in his place. Under this proprsetor the Silures, who had hitherto 
remained independent in the fastnesses of the mountains, and 
had, perhaps, taken part with the Brigantes, were conquered. 
But the spirit of disaffection was now spreading widely, and when 
in the year 78, Julius Frontinus was recalled, the Ordovices of 
North Wales rose and destroyed a troop of cavalry which was 
stationed in their country, and various other tribes were preparing 
to rise in a general revolt. 

At this moment the man of all others most capable of wrestling 
with the dangers which seemed on all sides to threaten the pro- 
vince, was appointed as a successor to Frontinus. It was towards 
the close of the summer of the year 78, when Julius Agricola 
returned from Rome to assume the government of Britain. In 
spite of the advanced period of the year, he immediately assembled 
the legions and a small number of the auxiliaries, and marching 
into the mountains of the Ordovices, he caused nearly the whole 
tribe to be put to the sword. He then passed over to Mona 
(Anglesea), and reduced that island entirely under the Roman 
power. As the time of the year was now past for further military 
operations, and the slaughter of the Ordovices had struck terror 
through most of the other tribes, Agrieola spent the winter in 
regulating and reforming the government of the province, and 
correcting the innumerable abuses which had crept into the 



chap, l] CAMPAIGNS OF AGRICOLA. 37 

administration. As the summer of the year 79 approached, the 
legions were again in motion, and by a mixture of rigour towards 
those who resisted, and extraordinary lenity towards those who 
submitted, he succeeded in establishing the Roman power through- 
out the island, almost to the borders of Scotland. In the midst 
of these successes, the emperor Vespasian died, and left the 
purple to his son Titus. Agricola, who was continued in the 
government of Britain, spent the remainder of the year in securing 
his conquests. He now, as Tacitus tells us, saw the necessity of 
weaning the fierce passions of the Britons from the unsettled state 
of war and tumult to which they were habituated, and of leading 
them to adopt the pursuits of peace and the refinements of civili- 
sation. He saw that this could only be effected by giving them 
a relish for the arts and a taste for elegant pleasure. To this he 
excited them by his conversations in private and by his public 
measures. He encouraged them to erect temples, forums, and 
houses. He caused the sons of the British chiefs to be instructed 
in the language and knowledge of their conquerers. Such mea- 
sures produced rapid effects. The Britons soon began to adopt 
the Roman dress, and they exchanged the rude garb of their 
ancestors for the dignified toga. The manners of the Romans 
also gradually took root among them, and they gained a taste for 
erecting porticos and baths, and indulging in other luxuries. 

In the spring of the year 80, Agricola placed himself again at 
the head of the army, and, proceeding to invade and reduce the 
lowlands of Scotland, extended the Roman territory as far as 
the estuary of the river Taus (the Tay). When this campaign was 
over, the Roman troops were employed under the eye of their 
leader in erecting fortresses over the newly-acquired territory, and 
the sites were chosen with so much judgment that it was a comV 
mon remark that no castellum built by Agricola was ever taken 
by the enemy, and they were placed near enough together to 
communicate easily with each other. Agricola's fourth summer 
(a.d. 81) was employed in the erection of a chain of forts between 
the two estuaries known to the Romans by the name of Clota and 
Bodotria (the Clyde and Forth), as a check upon the incursions of 
the northern highlanders ; and in the following spring he brought 
his fleet into the Solway firth, and carried his troops over to the 
country where it approached nearest to Ireland, which also he 
secured with fortresses and troops. The exact locality of these 



38 THE BRITONS. [chap. i. 

operations has been a matter of some dispute, but the opinion 
which seems to carry most weight places it in the country known 
in more modern times by the name of Galloway. It was under- 
stood that the Roman general already projected an invasion of 
Ireland. One of its petty princes, driven into exile by a domestic 
sedition, had repaired to Agricola to ask for assistance from the 
Romans, and Agricola was ready to seize the occasion of carrying 
over a Roman legion, had his intention not been drawn away by 
other events. 

Early in the year 83, which was Agricola's sixth campaign, the 
Roman general marched with his army into the country beyond 
the line of fortress erected two years before, to reduce the northern 
tribes, who appear to have harassed his borders by their inroads. 
Having assembled his fleet in the Firth of Forth, he ordered it 
to accompany the march of his army, which proceeded through the 
districts bordering on the eastern coast. The Caledonian tribes 
harassed the Roman legions on their march ; and when they had 
reached a position supposed to be a little to the south of the Ochil 
mountains, the ninth legion, which was in advance and obliged to 
encamp in an unfavourable position, was so vigorously attacked 
that, had it not been soon relieved by the arrival of the rest of 
the Roman forces, it might have experienced a disaster more 
serious even than that which fell upon it in its march to Camalo- 
dunum. The object of this campaign appears to have been to take 
possession of the districts of Fife and Kinross, preparatory to the 
entire reduction of the northern parts of the island in the following 
year. Accordingly, in the summer of the year 84, having ordered 
his ileet to sail round Scotland and alarm the enemy by making 
descents on the coast, he advanced with the army, in which the 
southern Britons now served as Roman auxiliaries, and reached 
the foot of the Grampian mountains, on the declivity of which he 
found thirty thousand of the bravest warriors of the north, under 
a celebrated chief named Galgacus, assembled to resist his 
further advance. As the Romans advanced to the attack, they 
suffered much from the arrows of the enemy, while the north 
Britons, who were armed with long pointless swords and small 
round shields, used them so skilfully that they parried off the 
Roman missiles. Agricola, observing the inequality of this mode 
of combating, chose three troops of Batavians and two of Tun- 
grians, and ordered them to hurry forward and attack the Britons 



chap. L] BATTLE OF THE GRAMPIANS. 39 

with their swords. These where short and pointed, and there- 
fore much better calculated for close action than the long swords of 
their opponents. The attack was made with courage and success ; 
the Britons, crowded together too closely in their ranks, were de- 
prived of the free use of their arms to strike with their swords in 
their usual manner, while their faces and bodies were exposed to 
the deadly thrusts of their opponents, and they soon began to 
give way. The rest of the Roman troops had now come up, and 
the main body of the Caledonians, which had remained in their 
position on the hill, rushed down to the assistance of their com- 
panions, so that the battle became general. The Roman disci- 
pline, however, soon overcame the bravery of their opponents, and 
the north Britons were routed with terrible slaughter. About ten 
thousand are said to have been killed, and those who escaped fled 
with their families into the more remote and inaccessible parts of 
the country. 

This last great battle of Agricola is believed to have been fought 
on the moor of Ardoch, in Perthshire. It made the Romans 
masters of the whole island. Agricola left his army to winter in 
the district of the Horestii, and returned to his seat of government 
in the south. His fleet made the circuit of north Britain, and, 
while they took a survey of its coasts and obtained information 
relating to the interior, they filled the inhabitants with terror and 
alarm. The} 7 " took possession of the Orkney Islands. The merits 
of Agricola were, however, too bright for the worthless ruler who 
then sat on the imperial throne ; and this distinguished pro- 
praetor, with an empty triumph, was deprived of his command in 
Britain, to experience at home the ingratitude of Domitian. He 
left the province of Britain in perfect tranquillity ; and, though 
history has told us nothing of the events of the next few years, 
it seems probable that the Roman troops in Britain, finding no 
employment at home, passed over to Ireland, and reduced that 
island to nominal subjection. The poet Juvenal, who is said to 
have written his satire in a.d. 96, just twelve years after Agri- 
cola's last campaign, speaks of Ireland as one of the most recent 
acquisitions of the Roman arms, — 

(i Anna quidera ultra 
Litora Juvernse promovimus, et modo captas 
Orcadas, ac minima contentos nocte Bntanno9." 

Britain was now entirely subjected to the power of imperial 



40 THE BRITONS. [chap. i. 

Eome. Its people had irrecoverably lost their independence, and 
they soon lost their nationality, when their new rulers began to 
divide the province of Britain into departments. The very 
nations, many of whom had so bravely fought for their freedom, 
lost their names, and gradually merged into Roman subjects, 
or rather Roman slaves. A little more than thirty years after 
the recall of Agricola, the celebrated geographer, Claudius 
Ptolomaeus, published his survey of the world as then known, in 
which he has given us a very exact survey of the coasts of Britain 
and Ireland, with an enumeration of the native tribes. From 
this account, compared with the allusions of other writers, it 
appears that the south-eastern part of the island, or the district 
now occupied by the county of Kent, was occupied by the Cantii, 
a large and influential tribe, which, in Caesar's time, was divided 
among four chiefs or kings. To the west, the Regni held the 
modern counties of Sussex and Surrey, from the sea-coast to the 
Thames. Still farther west, the Belgae occupied the country from 
the southern coast to the Bristol Channel, including nearly the 
whole of Hampshire, Wiltshire, and Somersetshire. The whole of 
the extensive district extending from the Belgae to the extreme 
western point of the island, then called Antivestaeum or Bolerium 
(now the Lands-End), including Devonshire and Cornwall, was 
occupied by the Dumnonii, or Damnonii. On the coast, between 
the Dumnonii and the Belgae, the smaller tribe of the Durotriges 
held the modern county of Dorset. On the other side of the 
Thames, extending northwards to the Stour, and including the 
greater part of Middlesex as well as Essex, lay the Trinobantes. 
To the north of the Stour, dwelt the Ieeni, extending over the 
counties of Suffolk, Norfolk, Cambridge, and Huntingdon. The 
Coritavi possessed the present counties of Northampton, Leicester, 
Rutland, Derby, Nottingham, and Lincoln ; and the south-eastern 
part of Yorkshire was held by the Parish. Between the tribes 
last enumerated, in the counties of Buckingham, Bedford, and 
Hertford, lay the tribe called by Ptolemy the Catyeuchlani 
{Karvev\kavoi\ and by others Catuvellani. Another name appa- 
rently for this tribe, or for a division of it, was the Cassii. West 
of these were the Attrebates, in Berkshire; and still further west 
were the Dobuni, in the counties of Oxford and Gloucester. All 
these tribes are supposed to have been later settlers than the 
tribes of the interior, those nearer the coast being always, of 



chap, i.] BRITISH TRIBES. 41 

course, the more recent colonies, and it is far from improbable that 
some of them were of German origin. 

The interior of the island northward was occupied by the 
Brigantes, who held the extensive districts, difficult of approach 
on account of their mountains and woods, extending from the 
Humber and the Mersey to the present borders of Scotland. 
This extensive tribe appears to have included several smaller ones. 
Two of these are called by Richard of Cirencester, the Voluntii 
and the Sestuntii, the former in the west of Lancashire, the latter 
in Westmoreland and Cumberland. The Jugantes and the 
Cangi of Tacitus, on the borders of the Irish sea, are also under- 
stood to have belonged to, or been dependent upon, this tribe. 
The Brigantes are believed to have been the original inhabitants 
of the island, who had been driven northward by successive inva- 
sions and settlements, and they appear to have been the least 
civilised tribe of South Britain ; their wild independence was 
encouraged and protected by the nature of the country they 
inhabited. Wales also was inhabited by a primitive population. 
The northern counties, Flint, Denbigh, Montgomery, Merioneth, 
and Caernarvon, with the island of Anglesea, (then, as we have 
said before, called Mona,) was the territory of the Ordo vices. 
The south-eastern counties of Cardigan, Caermarthen, and 
Pembroke, were held by the Demetse. The still more celebrated 
tribe of the Silures inhabited the modern counties of Hereford, 
Radnor, Brecknock, Monmouth, and Glamorgan. Between these 
and the Brigantes lay the Cornabii, or Carnabii, who occupied 
the present counties of Warwick, Worcester, Stafford, Salop, and 
Chester, and perhaps the adjoining part of Flintshire. 

The wilder parts of the island of Britain, to the north of the 
Brigantes, were inhabited by a great number of smaller tribes, 
some of whom seem to have been raised in the scale of civilisation 
little above savages. Of these we have the names of no less 
than twenty-one. Bordering on the Brigautes, were the Otadeni, 
inhabiting the coast from the Tyne to the Firth of Forth, including 
a large portion of Northumberland, with the modern counties of 
Berwick and East Lothian, and part of Roxburghshire. Next to 
them were the Gadeni, occupying the western part of North- 
umberland, the small part of Cumberland north of the Irthing, 
the western part of Roxburghshire, the whole of the county of 
Selkirk, with Tweedale, a great part of Mid-Lothian, and nearly 



42 THE BRITONS. [chap. i. 

all West-Lothian. The Selgovae inhabited Annan dale, Nithsdale, 
and Eskdale, in Dumfrieshire, with the east of Galloway. The 
Novantes inhabited the remainder of Galloway. The Damnii, 
a larger tribe, held the country from the chain of hills separating 
Galloway from Carrick, northward to the river Ern. These tribes 
lay to the south of the Forth and Clyde. Beyond the narrow 
boundary formed by these rivers lay, first, the Horestii, who 
occupied the modern counties of Clackmannan, Kinross, and Fife, 
with the eastern part of Strathern, and the country to the west of 
the Tay. The Venricones occupied a part of Perthshire, the 
whole of Angus, and a large part of Kincardineshire. The 
northern part of the Mearns, and the greater part of Aberdeen- 
shire, were inhabited by the Taixali. The Vacomagi possessed 
the country forming the modern shires of Bamff, Elgin, and Nairn, 
with the east part of Inverness and Brasmar, in Aberdeenshire. 
The Albani held the districts of Braidalban and Athol, with parts 
of Lochaber and Upper Lorn. The ferocious tribe of the Attacotti 
inhabited part of Argyleshire, and the greater part of Dumbarton- 
shire. The wild forest country of the interior, known as the 
Caledonia Sylva, (or forest of Celyddon), extending from the 
ridge of mountains between Inverness and Perth northward to 
the forest of Balnagowan, including the middle parts of Inverness 
and Ross, was held by the Caledonii, which appears to have been 
at this time the most important and powerful of all the tribes 
north of the Brigantes. The eastern part of Ross was inhabited 
by the Cantas. On the south-eastern coast of Sutherland were 
the Logi. Beyond them, the Carnabii occupied the greater part 
of Caithness, leaving only the north-west corner, which, with a 
part of Sutherlandshire, belonged to the Catini. The interior of 
Sutherlandshire was peopled by the Mertee ; while the north and 
west coasts, and a small part of the western coast of Ross were 
inhabited by the Carnonacse. A tribe named the Creones dwelt 
on the west coast of Ross ; the Cerones held the western coast of 
Inverness and part of Argyleshire ; and the neck of land, now 
known by the name of Cantyre, was the seat of the Epidii. We 
have no information on the ethnological character of these tribes ; 
some of them are supposed to have come from Scandinavia and 
t]|e opposite coast of Germany ; others no doubt originated in 
migrations from the south; while others again probably came 
from Ireland. 



chap. I.] THE POPULATION OF IRELAND. 43 

This island, known to the Romans by the names of Hibernia 
and Juverna, appears to have been tolerably well known in the 
age of Ptolemy, who gives us a description of its coasts, and 
enumerates the tribes and towns both in the maritime districts and 
in the interior. On the northern coast dwelt the Veniconii, in 
the modern county of Donegal, and the Eobogdii, in Londonderry 
and Antrim. Adjoining to the Veniconii, westward, were the Erdini 
or Erpeditani, and next to them the MagnataB, all in Donegal. 
Farther south were the Auteri, in Sligo ; the Gangani, in Mayo ; 
and the Yelibori, or Ellebri, in the district between Galway and 
the Shannon. The south-west part of the island, with a great 
portion of the interior, was inhabited by the Iverni, who gave 
name not only to the great river, but to the whole island, and 
who may, perhaps, be considered as the aboriginal inhabitants. 
The south-eastern promontory, now called Carnsore Point, was 
then known by the title of the Holy Promontory (Upbv aKpov), to 
the north-west of which, in the modern counties of Waterford and 
Tipperary, Ptolemy places a tribe called the Usdiee or Vodiae, 
according to the variations of the manuscripts. In the modern 
county of Wexford dwelt the Brigantes ; and northward from 
them, were the Coriondi, in Wicklow ; the Menapii, in Dublin ; 
the Cauci, on the banks of the Boyne; the Blanii, or Eblan}, on 
the bay of Dundalk ; the Voluntii, in Down ; and the Darini, 
bordering on the Robogdii, in Antrim. 

Three, at least, of the tribes who held the eastern coast of 
Ireland, the Brigantes, the Menapii, and the Voluntii, were, no 
doubt, colonies from the opposite shores of Britain. This circum- 
stance gives additional force to the conjecture that the Brigantes, 
with their dependent tribe, the Voluntii, are to be considered as 
the remains of the earlier Celtic population of the latter island. 
Driven inward by the later settlers, whether Celtic or Teutonic, 
they were obliged also to seek new settlements in the neighbouring 
island. 

It is evident that these various tribes, not only governed by 
different chiefs, but belonging to different races, must have differed 
also in their manners and in their comparative civilisation, and 
that we should be wrong in applying to them all the various 
notices on this subject found in ancient writers, and much more 
so in transferring to the inhabitants of Britain, without reserve, 
the description which the old geographers and historians have 



44 THE BRITONS. [chap. i. 

left us of the people of Gaul. Most of the descriptions found in 
subsequent writers are little more than a repetition of the scanty 
information given by Caesar who was himself acquainted only with 
the south-eastern part of the island. 

We should probably form the best appreciation of the con- 
dition of our Celtic forefathers before their conquest by the 
Romans, by comparing them with the septs or clans in Ireland 
and the highlands of Scotland in the twelfth and thirteenth 
centuries. Each chief exercised the same independent and 
unrestrained authority over his clan, and the disunion of the 
whole was probably increased by difference of language and race. 
There seems to be no reason for assuming that the different tribes 
were accustomed to unite under one head (or, as he had been 
termed, Pendragon) in cases of emergency. On the contrary, we 
observe, as far as their history is known, that they never acted 
together, unless when their union was caused by conquest, or by the 
alliance of one or two neighbouring and, perhaps, kindred tribes.* 
The statement that they went naked, and that they painted their 
bodies, can only have been true of some of the most barbarous 
tribes. We have no very distinct information on the clothes of 
the Britons, except that we know from the earlier Roman writers 
that they wore breeches (braccce), like the Gauls and Germans. 
They are described as being in person taller than the average height 
of the Romans. The brief account of Tacitus confirms the views 
already stated, as to the difference of races which peopled the 
island. He imagined that the red hair and masculine forms of 
the Caledonians bespoke a German origin; that the Silures, by 
their complexions (color ati vultus), and curly hair, were a 
colony of the Iberi of Spain ; and that the tribes who inhabited 
the coasts came from Gaul ; and one of the arguments he adduces 
for believing that the maritime tribes were of Gallic origin, the 
similarity of language, (sermo liaud multum diversus), leads us 
to believe that the language of these tribes was totally different 
from that of the Silures, or that of the Caledonians, and of the 
tribes of the interior. 

In one particular, we are justified in considering the description 

* Tacitus, speaking of the British tribes, says " Nee aliud adversus validissimas 
gentes pro nobis utilius, quam quod in commune non consulunt. Rarus duabus 
tribusve civitatibus ad propulsandum commune periculum conventus; ita, duni 
singuli pugnant, universi vincuntur." — Tacitus, Agric. c. 12. 



chap, l] THE DRUIDS. 45 

of the manners of the people of Gaul as applicable to those of 
Britain, I mean their religion. All the ancient writers agree 
that the druidic system was the same in both countries. All 
that we really know of it is given by Caesar, and may be best 
repeated in his own words. " The druids," he says, " act in all 
sacred matters ; they attend to the sacrifices, which are offered 
either by the tribe in general, or by individuals, and answer all 
questions concerning their religion. They always have a large 
number of young men as pupils, who treat them with the 
greatest respect. For it is they who decide in all controversies, 
whether public or private, and they judge all causes, whether of 
murder, of a disputed inheritance, or of the boundaries of estates. 
They assign both rewards and punishments, and whoever refuses 
to abide by their sentence, whether he be in a public or private 
station, is forbidden to be present at the sacrifices to the gods. 
This is in fact their most severe mode of punishment, and those 
who have been thus excommunicated are held as impious and 
profane ; all avoid them, no one will either meet them or speak 
to them, lest they should be injured by their contagion ; every 
species of honour is withheld from them, and if they are plaintiffs 
in a lawsuit, justice is denied them. All the druids are subject 
to one chief, who enjoys the greatest authority among them. 
Upon the death of the chief druid, the next in dignity is appointed 
to succeed him ; and if there are two whose merits are equal, the 
election is made by the votes of the whole body, though sometimes 
they dispute for pre-eminence with the sword. . . . The druidic 
system is thought to have had its origin in Britain, from whence 
it was introduced into Gaul ; and it is still customary for those 
who wish to study it more thoroughly, to pass over into Britain 
for that purpose. The druids enjoy peculiar privileges ; they 
are exempted from service in war, and from the payment of 
taxes ; they have also many other immunities, which cause their 
order to become so numerous and influential, and young men are 
gladly placed with them to learn their doctrines by their parents 
and relations. In their schools the pupils are said to learn by 
heart a large number of verses, and in this way some of their 
scholars pass twenty years in completing their education ; for it is 
unlawful to commit their doctrines to writing, though they are 
not ignorant of the art of writing ; and for all other purposes, 
both in their public and private reckonings, they make use of the 



46 THE BRITONS. [chap. i. 

Greek characters. It seems to me that they have two motives 
for this conduct : in the first place, they are unwilling that their 
tenets should become known to the vulgar ; and, secondly, they 
are afraid that their pupils will be less apt to cultivate their 
memories, if they trust to written characters, which often have 
the effect of checking diligent study. Among their most important 
tenets is that of the immortality of the soul, which they believe 
passes after death into other bodies ; they hold this to be a great 
inducement to the practice of virtue, as the mind becomes 
relieved from the fear of death. Their other doctrines concern 
the motions of the heavenly bodies, the magnitude of the earth 
and the universe, the nature of things, and the power and 
attributes of the immortal gods." " All the Gallic nations,'* 
Caesar adds, " are much given to superstition; for which reason, 
when they are seriously ill, or are in danger from their wars or 
other causes, they either offer up men as victims to the gods, or 
make a vow to sacrifice themselves. The ministers in these 
offerings are the druids ; and they hold that the wrath of the 
immortal gods can only be appeased, and man's life be redeemed, 
by offering up human sacrifice, and it is part of their national 
institutions to hold fixed solemnities for this purpose. Some of 
them make immense images of wicker-work, which they fill with 
men, who are thus burned alive in offering to their deities. 
These victims are generally selected from among those who have 
been convicted of theft, robbery, or other crimes, in whose 
punishment they think the immortal gods take the greatest 
pleasure ; but if there be a scarcity of such victims, they do not 
hesitate to sacrifice innocent men in their place." 

" Their principal deity," continues Caesar, " is Mercury, in 
whose honour they have erected numerous statues ; they hold 
him to be the inventor of all the arts, and the god who protects 
men on a journey, and leads them on their way ; moreover, they 
ascribe to him the power of granting success and prosperity in 
affairs of gain and commerce. Next to Mercury come Apollo, 
Mars, Jupiter, and Minerva, to whom they ascribe attributes 
similar to those which are attributed to the same deities among 
nations. Apollo is believed to heal diseases, Minerva to initiate 
mankind in the arts and sciences, Jupiter to be the king of 
heaven, and Mars to be the. god of war. When the Gauls are 
about to fight a battle, they often make a vow to dedicate to Mars 



chap, l] THE DRUIDS. 47 

the spoils which they may take from their enemies. If there be 
a superabundance of cattle taken in war, the surplus is offered up 
in sacrifice. The rest of the spoil is collected into one mass. In 
many of their tribes, large heaps of these things may be seen in 
their consecrated places ; and it is a rare occurrence for any 
individual sacrilegiously to conceal part of the booty, or to turn it 
to his own use ; the severest punishment, together with bodily 
torture, is inflicted on those who are guilty of such an offence. 
The Gauls boast that they sprung from father Dis (Pluto) ; and 
say that they derive their information from the druids. This is 
the reason why they measure time by nights and not by days, 
and their birth-days, together with the commencement of their 
months and years, are so arranged, that the days are reckoned as 
parts of the preceding nights." 

Caesar had an interest in collecting all the information he 
could relating to the druids and their religion, but we are almost 
led to suspect that he obtained it from different races, German 
and Celtic, and that he mixed it together without due discrimina- 
tion. The five deities which he gives to the Gauls seem to be 
Teutonic, the same whose names have been preserved in our 
modern days of the week. The great god of the Germans was 
Woden, who is always identified with the Roman Mercury ; 
Jupiter was Thor ; Mars was Tuisco ; Minerva was, no doubt, 
Frigga ; and Caesar's Apollo was perhaps intended for Saeter, the 
god whose name has been preserved in our Saturday. It has 
always been the custom of the Germans to reckon time by nights 
— we still say sennight, fortnight, &c, for what the French call 
huit jours, quinze jours, but we know so little of the Celts, that 
we cannot venture to assert that they did not reckon time in the 
same way. 

An edict of the emperor Claudius proscribed the druidic 
caste, with its superstitions, and they quickly disappeared from 
Gaul. A curious passage of Tacitus, where he compares the 
tribes on the south and south-eastern coast of Britain with the 
Gauls on the Continent, and points out as a point of similarity in 
which the other British tribes did not partake, the resemblance 
of their religious rites,* would lead us to imagine that druidism 

* "Proximi Gallis, et similes sunt .... eorum sacra deprehendas, 
superstirionum persuasione." — Taciti Agric, c. 11. We must bear in mind that 



48 THE BRITONS. [chap. i. 

prevailed only among those maritime people. As the Eomans 
advanced, their "ban still fell upon the druids, who made their 
last stand in Mona, and were destroyed there hy the arms of 
Suetonius Paullinus. Subsequent writers only speak of them as 
a race who belonged to past ages, and they add nothing to our 
knowledge, at least nothing in which we can place any trust. 
It is Pliny who tells us of their respect for the mistletoe. " The 
druids," he says, " who are the magi of Gaul, esteem nothing 
more sacred than the mistletoe, and the tree on which it grows, 
if only it be an oak. Indeed they select groves of oaks, and use 
their leaves in all their sacred rites, so that their very name of 
druids may seem to be derived from the Greek name for oak (bpvs). 
Every thing which grows upon these trees is considered by them 
as sent from heaven, and a sign that the tree is chosen by the 
deity himself. But the mistletoe is very rare to find, and where 
it occurs is sought with great avidity ; particularly on the sixth 
moon, which, among these nations, makes the beginnings of their 
months and years, and of a generation after thirty years, because 
it then has abundance of strength, though not yet half of its full 
size. They call it in their language by a name which signifies all- 
heal {omnia sanantem). and when they have made ready their 
sacrifices and banquets under the tree, they bring up two white 
bulls, whose horns are then bound for the first time. A priest 
clothed in a white robe ascends the tree, and with a golden 
pruning-knife lops off the bough, which is caught in a white 
towel. Then they immolate the victims, praying that God may 
prosper the gift to all who shall partake of it ; for they believe 
that by using it as a drink barren animals are rendered fruitful, 
and all kinds of poisons are deprived of their noxious power." * 

Pruidism was abolished when Tacitus wrote, so lie could only speak of the traces 
of it which remained among the people; yet we know by many instances how long 
such traces endure. 

* Plinii Hist. Nat., lib. xvi., c. 95. 



chap, ii.] BRITISH REMAINS. 49 



CHAPTER II. 

British Antiquities — Barrows — Cromlechs, and Sepulchral Chambers — Circles ; 
Stonehenge — Other Monuments of Stone — Various descriptions of British 
Barrows — Their contents — Pottery — Instruments of Stone — Instruments of 
Metal — Other articles — Their value as illustrative of History — The British 
Coinage — Earthworks, and supposed sites of towns and villages. 

Such is all we know from record of the history and condition of 
the inhabitants of Britain before it was finally reduced to a Boman 
province. We are able to add little to this knowledge from the 
discoveries of the antiquary, for the monuments of the British 
period are few, and uncertain, on account of the difficulty of 
appropriating them in a satisfactory manner. It has been the 
custom to consider all articles of rude make, which appeared not to 
be Boman, as belonging to a period antecedent to the Boman 
invasion ; but later experience, and more careful investigation, 
have shown that this view was altogether erroneous. Much which 
used to be called British, is now known to be Saxon, and it is 
impossible to say how much of the rest belongs to the period of 
the Boman occupation. 

The only monuments to which people in a rude state of civili- 
sation seem to have been anxious to give durability, were their 
graves, and to the contents of these we must look for any traces 
of the character and manuers of those who built them. From the 
remotest ages it was customary to mark to future generations tho 
last resting-place of the honoured dead, by raising mounds, more 
or less elevated according to circumstances connected with the 
locality, or according to the power and influence of the deceased. 
To these sepulchral mounds our Anglo-Saxon forefathers gave the 
names of low (lilceiv), and barrow (beorh, beariv) ; of which the 
former is chiefly preserved in names of places, such as Bartlow, 

E 



50 THE BRITONS. [chap. n. 

Houndslow, Lowesby, &c, while the latter has been generally 
used by English writers on archaeology as the technical term 
for all ancient sepulchral mounds. Both are equivalent to the 
Latin tumulus. The form of the barrow was in its original state 
more or less conical, especially when it was of large dimensions, 
hut ages of exposure to the elements and to other actions, which 
have swept so many of them entirely from the soil, have no doubt 
greatly modified the forms of those which are left, and, whatever 
may once have been the distinction of form, we can now only 
judge of the people to whom they belonged by their contents. 
Sir Richard Colt Hoare, an earnest and diligent antiquary, if not 
always a correct one, opened a great number of barrows in the 
south of England, and hastily undertook to classify them according 
to their outward forms, inventing a nomenclature which has been 
too blindly followed by antiquaries of later times.* He thus 
not only distinguished by their outward forms what were British 
barrows, but he subdivided the British barrows themselves. Yet 
his own errors show how little truth there was in this system, for 
he confounds British with Saxon, and sometimes either or both 
with what may have been Roman. 

It is only by probability, greater or less, that we can attribute 
any of these barrows to the British period, for unfortunately we 
have no known and undoubted monuments of British manufac- 
ture with which to compare them, as is the case with the Roman 
and with other later periods. The very fact that great errors have 
been made, obliges us to proceed with the more caution in forming 
our judgment. 

There is one class of barrows, and those usually large ones, 
which, when found in this island, all antiquaries seem to agree 
in ascribing to the Britons— mounds which contain a rude chamber 
of rough stones, often of colossal dimensions. In the greater 
number of instances, the superincumbent mound has been 
removed, either for the sake of the earth, or in the belief, preva- 
lent during the middle ages, that treasure was contained under 

* The chief varieties in the classification alluded to, have received the names of 
conical barrows, bell barrows, bowl barrows, druid barrows, broad barrows, twin 
barrows, long barrows, and pond barrows. No doubt barrows with the forms 
indicated by these names are found, but it is most probable that they frequently 
owe them to accidental circumstances, among which we must not omit the caprice 
of the makers. 



chap, il] CROMLECHS. 51 

it, and the massive chamber of rough stones alone has been left 
standing. Groups of large stones arranged in this manner have 
been found scattered over various parts of the British islands, as 
well as in other countries. Our antiquaries have applied to them 
the name of cromlechs, and have given to them every sort of 
absurd explanation, the most general of which was that which 
made them druid's altars. But recent researches have left no 
room for doubt that they are all sepulchral chambers denuded of 
their mounds. In fact they have been found with their original 
coverings in the Channel Islands, in Britany, in Ireland, and in 
England. One instance occurred about the year 1800, at Lanyon, 
in the parish of Maddern, or Madron, near Penzance in Cornwall, 
which has been more carefully recorded than other similar 
discoveries in England, and it furnishes us with an example 
of the motives which have led to the removal of the original 
mounds. The farmer to whom the ground belonged had often 
cast a longing eye to what appeared to be an immense heap of rich 
mould, and at length he resolved to clear it away and spread it 
over his field. As these large barrows are generally raised in 
localities where the soil is not very deep, the earth of which they 
are formed is the more attractive When they had carried away 
about a hundred cart loads, the labourers came to a great stone, 
and not knowing what this might be, they removed the sur- 
rounding earth more carefully, and thus brought to light a large 
cromlech, formed, like many known examples, by three upright 
stones, making the three sides of the sepulchral chamber, covered 
with a massive cap-stone. Within were found a heap of broken 
urns and human bones, but it was evident that it had been 
disturbed at some former period, probably by treasure-seekers. 

The word cromlech is said to be Celtic, and to have a meaning 
not differing much from that of the name dolmen given to 
them in France, which signifies a stone table.* Indeed, their 
appearance in an uncovered state readily suggests the idea of 
a table, and the peasantry in France often call them fairies' 
tables and devils' tables. These chambers are usually closed in 
only on three sides, and consist of four stones, three of which 
raised on their ends form the sides of a square, while the fourth 
serves as the covering. Such is the very remarkable cromlech 

* Some of our Celtic antiquaries, not satisfied with the name of "cromlech," had 
named them Jcist-vaens, or, as they interpret it, " stone-chests. 1 ' 

E 2 



52 THE BRITONS. 



[CHAP. II. 



on the hill between Maidstone and Rochester, in Kent, known 
by the name of Kits-Cotty House. In the annexed view of the 




Cromlech of Chun-Quoit, in Cornwall. 

cromlech of Chun-Quoit, in the parish of Morvan, in the western 
part of Cornwall, only the lower corner of the stone forming the 
transverse side, is seen. These monuments vary in size, though 
they are often very large. The covering stone of the cromlech 
of Chun, just described, is calculated to weigh about twenty tons ; 
the covering stone of one at Lanyon, in the parish of Madron, in 
Cornwall, weighs about fifteen tons ; that of Kits-Cotty House, 
in Kent, has been estimated at ten tons and a half. Others 
are much smaller. Three upright stones, with a covering, 
constitute the cromlech in its simplest form. The stones are 
usually joined as close together as their shape will permit, for 
they seldom present any traces of having been squared with a 
tool; sometimes they are left with interstices between them, 
which gives the chamber a still more rude appearance ; and they 
are sometimes not arranged in a regular square. In some 
instances, as they now stand, the back stone has been carried 
away, and the cromlech consists only of three stones, two standing 
like the portals of a door, to support the transverse cap-stone or 
lintel ; in others, where the cromlech has fallen, only two stones 
are left, one upright, and the other leaning upon it with one edge 



chap, ii.] SEPULCHRAL CHAMBERS. 53 

on the ground ; and in many instances all that remains of the 
original cromlech is a single stone, standing upright or lying 
flat. We owe these forms doubtless to the dilapidations of time, 
and examples are known of the destruction of whole cromlechs to 
break up the stones for roads, or other purposes. But the old 
antiquaries had made different classes of all these imperfect 
monuments, and in France they gave them distinctive names. 
They termed the first lichavens, w T hich is interpreted also as 
meaning stone-tables, but later French antiquaries have given 
them the Greek name of triliths, on account of the three stones of 
which they are composed ; the second are called by the French 
antiquaries demi-dolmens ; and the third class they have termed 
indiscriminately menhirs, or peulvans, Celtic terms signifying 
long stones, or stone jnllcirs. 

This, as we have said, was the simplest form of the British 
sepulchral chamber, but it was sometimes much more complicated 
in its structure. In some instances it presents the form of a 
ponderous cap-stone, supported at its corners by four stones, and 
leaving the sides of the chamber more or less open. In other 
instances the chamber is made more complete, its sides being 
formed by a number of stones joined side by side, with one or 
more very large cap-stones above. Cromlechs thus constructed 
are found in different parts of England, and especially in the 
Channel Islands. Sometimes more than one cromlech is found 
under the same mound. On the hills between Gloucester and 
Cheltenham a rather low, but very extensive oblong mound, 
overgrown with fir-trees, was a few years ago accidentally dug 
into at one end, and a small cromlech was brought to light. 
From the appearance of the mound, we are justified in supposing 
that one or more similar cromlechs still remain uncovered in 
the part which has not been touched. There is a remarkable 
monument of this kind at Plas Newydd, in the isle of Anglesea ; 
it consists of two cromlechs close together, (the French 
antiquaries call it a double dolmen,) one considerably larger 
than the other.* The cap-stone of the largest, which measures 

* It may be mentioned, as a sample of the absurdities which have been 
published on the subject of these monuments, that a writer of the earlier part of 
the present century, describing this monument, "had no doubt" that the greater 
cromlech was appropriated to the sacrifice, and the lesser to the priest while he 
attended it ! 



54 THE BKITONS. [chap. n. 

about twelve feet in length, by ten in breadth, and from four and 
a half to three and a half feet in thickness, rests on five upright 
stones ; it is said to have had originally seven supports. These 
two cromlechs were no doubt included in one mound. 




Cromlech at Plas Newydd, Isle of Anglesea. 

A glance at the monument last described, shows us how readily 
the idea would present itself of building galleries, or a series of 
chambers, in these large sepulchral mounds, probably to serve 
as family tombs. Vast works of this kind are found in Botany, 
as well as in Ireland. The chambered monument of New 
Grange, in Meath, is celebrated among Celtic antiquaries ; it 
contains a chamber twenty feet high by thirty feet in circum- 
ference, approached by a narrow passage from the side of the 
mound, the entrance to which was closed by a large slab of stone. 
The researches of Mr. Lukis among the Celtic sepulchres of the 
Channel Islands, show that these stone chambers had been there 
used by generation after generation, through several ages. As far 
as antiquarian researches have yet been carried, extensive monu- 
ments of this kind are of rare occurrence in England. They are 
found, however, in Wiltshire. When denuded of their covering of 
earth, they have been more easily thrown down than the simple 
cromlech, or perhaps they have afforded greater temptation to 
those who were in want of stone for other purposes. The monu- 



CHAP. II.] 



SEPULCHRAL CHAMBERS. 



55 



ment at Ashbury, in Berkshire, to which the Saxons attached the 
name of Welandes Smiththcm (WelancVs Smithy — Weland was 
the Saxon Vulcan), a name which has been corrupted to that of 
Wayland Smith's cave, appears to have been originally a gallery 
with chambers of this description. A very curious monument of 
the same kind, near Wellow, in Somersetshire, was opened by 
Sir Richard Colt Hoare, in the May of 1816, and an account of 
it published in the nineteenth volume of the Archseologia. The 
barrow, composed of stones instead of earth, and of a very 
irregular form, stood on the side of a sloping field called Round 
Hill Tyning, at a place called Stoney Littleton, about three 
quarters of a mile west of Wellow church. The barrow was a 
hundred and seven feet long, fifty-four feet in its extreme width, 
and thirteen feet high in its most elevated part. When opened 
it was found to contain a long gallery with chambers on each 
side. The annexed cut represents a section of the barrow in the 




Barrow at Stoney Littleton, in Somerset. 

length of the gallery, and a plan. The entrance was on the 
north-west side, where a stone upwards of seven feet long, and 
three and a half wide, supported by two others, left a square 
aperture of about four feet high, which had been closed by another 
large stone. This entrance led to a long passage or avenue, 
extending in the direction from north-west to south-east forty- 



56 THE BRITONS. [chap. n. 

seven feet six inches, and varying in breadth. There were three 
transepts, or recesses on each side. The side-walls were formed 
of thin laminae of stone piled closely together without cement, 
and a rude kind of arched roof, made by stones so placed as to 
overlap each other. Where the large stones in the side-walls did 
not join, the interstices were filled up with layers of small ones. 
This, like so many of the larger barrows, had been disturbed, and 
the deposits removed or scattered about. In one of the recesses, 
fragments of an earthen vessel with burnt bones were found ; but 
in general the deposits had been taken out of the recesses and 
scattered over the avenue, which was strewed with fragments of 
bones, mostly unburn t. In one place, just before the second 
transept, a stone had been placed across the avenue, which closed 
the access to the further part, but with what object it is not easy 
to guess. 

The mound or barrow, which, as we have stated, originally 
covered these cromlechs and stone structures, was generally 
formed of fine mould, and the value of the earth as soil has 
doubtless been the principal cause of their removal. Sometimes, 
however, the mound is composed of small loose stones, or of 
stones and earth mixed. That at Stoney Littleton, in Somerset- 
shire, appears to have been peculiar in its construction, built, as 
it were, of small stones. The reason of the use of stones instead 
of earth may generally be traced to the natural character of the 
locality, as such barrows are found most frequently on spots 
where stone was much more easily obtained than earth. A few 
instances have occurred in Wiltshire, but they are seldom found 
in the interior or the south of England, except in Cornwall, 
where they are not uncommon. They are common in Wales, 
and are found also in the north of England. In Scotland, 
where they are known by the name of cairns, they abound. The 
Welsh call them carnydd. In France they call the mounds of 
stones galgals. 

The base of the larger sepulchral mounds, and very often of 
the smaller ones, was usually defined either by a shallow foss, or 
by a circle of stones, and sometimes the two were combined. In 
some instances, especially in Cornwall, instead of the circle of 
stones, the base of the barrow was supported by a sort of low wall. 
These circles have often disappeared with the mound, as the 
stones of which they were composed were smaller and more 



CHAP. II.] 



BRITISH CIRCLES. 



57 



portable than those which constituted the cromlech. But they 
as often remain encircling the cromlech. At Molfra, in Cornwall, 
on a bare hill, with a commanding view of Mount's Bay, a fine 
cromlech is surrounded by a circular base of stonework, thirty- 
seven feet in diameter, and two feet high. A cromlech at Zennor, 
or Sennor, in Cornwall, is surrounded by a similar base. Our 
cut of the cromlech at Chun shows the circle of stones round that 
monument. The circles of stones are frequently found with the 
cromlechs in various parts of England. They are also often found 
without any cromlech in the centre. One of these, called Dance 
Maine, at Bolleit, in the parish of St. Burian, near the Land's 




Circle called Dance Maine, near the Land's End, Cornwall. 

End, is represented in the accompanying sketch. This circle is 
about eighty feet in diameter. There are several other good 
examples in Cornwall, nearly of the same magnitude, such as the 
circle at Boscawen-un, in the parish of Sancred, near the Land's 
End, about the same size as that of Dance Maine ; one in the 
parish of Madron, seventy feet in diameter ; and two adjoining 
circles in St. Just, each between sixty and seventy feet in 
diameter. The last stands on an eminence commanding a view 
of the Scilly islands. There is a similar circle on the summit of the 
lofty Pen- maen- ma wr, in North Wales. There are remains of others 



58 THE BRITONS. [chap. ii. 

at Salkeld, near Carlisle, at Rollrich, near Banbury in Oxfordshire, 
and in several other places in England. One, called Arbor-low, in 
the peak of Derby, nearly one hundred and fifty feet in diameter, 
is surrounded by a deep intrenchment. Sometimes the stones 
forming the circle are nearly equal in size, while in other cases 
they are very irregular. The latter is especially the case in 
a circle near Winterburn in Dorsetshire. It does not necessarily 
follow that the mounds raised on all these circles contained each 
a cromlech — the interments may, in some cases, have been made 
without a chamber, as it has been found to be the case in some 
larger barrows. 

Antiquaries observed these circles before they noticed how often 
they accompanied cromlechs, or were aware that cromlechs are 
sepulchral monuments, and they gave them the name of draids' 
circles, imagined that they were temples, or courts of justice, or 
places of assembly, and even built extravagant speculations on 
the number of stones which formed each circle. It is now quite 
certain that the majority of such circles were originally made to 
support or inclose sepulchral mounds, and even the circle at 
Arbor-low, which has been set down so positively as being the 
great druidical temple of the Peak of Derby, would seem, by its 
name of loiv, to have had another object, and when that name 
was given, to have presented a different appearance. Yet we 
should be rash in asserting, with our scanty knowledge of the 
subject, that some few of the circles of stones still remaining on 
our own soil may not have been erected for other purposes, 
though it is difficult to make the distinction. The greater 
number of these circles are not larger than the basis of ordinary 
large barrows, and there are sepulchral mounds known, whose 
bases are equal to the largest ; yet I am not aware that any 
barrow so large has yet been discovered in this country resting 
on such a circle of stones. Moreover, as we pursue these circles 
through the ascending scale of magnitude, we become still more 
embarrassed when we reach the gigantic monuments of Avebury 
and Stonehenge. 

The extraordinary monument called Stonehenge, an Anglo- 
Saxon term, meaning the hanging stones, is situated on a gentle 
knoll in the midst of a wide and barren tract, only distinguished 
from a plain by slight elevations. It consisted originally of an 
outer circle of thirty upright stones, sustaining as many others 



chap, il] STONEHENGE. 59 

placed horizontally, so as to form a continuous impost. These 
upright stones were about fourteen feet high above the ground, 
and seven feet broad, by three in thickness. They differ from 
other Celtic stone monuments in the circumstance that the stones 
have been hewn and squared with tools, and that each of the 
upright stones had two tenons or projections on the top, which 
fitted into mortices or hollows in the superincumbent slabs. 
Within this first circle, which was about a hundred feet in 
diameter, was another circle, eighty-three feet in diameter, con- 
taining about the same number of perpendicular stones, but much 
smaller, and without imposts. This again inclosed two elliptical 
arrangements of large and small stones, the former arranged in 
what the French archaeologists term triliths, or groups of 
three stones, two upright ones and an impost, and the other 
formed by a series of small upright stones, three of which stood 
before each trilith. The triliths were from sixteen to 
twenty-one feet in height. In the central space, in front of the 
principal trilith, is a large flat stone, which those who look 
upon the whole as a primeval temple, call the altar. Such is 
the arrangement of this monument as nearly as we can judge 
from its present condition, which presents to the eye at first sight 
an apparently confused mass of upright and fallen stones, the 
appearance of which, as seen from the W. N.W., is exhibited in 
our engraving, taken from a sketch by Mr. Fairholt. The form 
of the tenon on the uprights of the outer circle is shown on the 
leaning stone in front, somewhat more prominently than it is 
really seen, in order to make it more intelligible to the reader. 
This structure of stones occupies the centre of an area, inclosed 
by a circular entrenchment, consisting of a ditch and bank, 
three hundred feet in diameter. It was approached by a wide 
entrenched avenue from the north east, which, at the distance of a 
few hundred feet, branched off in two ways, running north and east. 
The ground around Stonehenge is covered with barrows, and 
was evidently the cemetery of a very extensive tribe, but nothing 
has yet been discovered to throw any light upon the object or 
date of the structure itself. The earliest existing legends relating 
to it describe it as a monument raised to the memory of the dead, 
a notion which may easily have arisen from the number of 
sepulchral monuments surrounding it.* The earliest writer who 

* Geoffrey of Monmouth, and the host of writers who translated and paraphrased 



60 THE BRITONS. [chap. ii. 

mentions it, Henry of Huntingdon,* looked upon it as involved 
in the same impenetrable mystery which still envelopes it, and 
which will probably never be cleared. From the arrangement of 
the stones, the most probable conjecture seems to be that which 
makes it a temple for some kind of worship ; but the wild 
speculations to which this and other suppositions have given rise 
should be deprecated by all who are sincerely desirous of arriving 
at truth, f It has been observed with regard to the stones of 
which this monument is constructed, that the outer circles of^ 
large stones, as well as the inner triliths, are of the sandstone 
found plentifully in the neighbourhood, whereas the inner circle 
of small stones, as well as the small stones within the triliths, 
are of a different sort of stone, which appears to have been 
brought from Devonshire. This has led to a conjecture that 
Stonehenge was built at two different periods, but those who have 
adopted this opinion differ as to which was the earliest and which 
the latest part. 

A series of circles more remarkable even than those of Stone- 
henge, is found at the village of Avebury, distant from Stonehenge 
about twenty miles. It consisted originally of an area, about 
fourteen hundred feet in diameter, inclosed by a deep ditch and 
bank, immediately within which was a first circle of a hundred 
stones. Within the area were two double circles, which have 
been designated as temples, one having three stones in the centre, 
and the other one only. The stones with which these various 
circles were composed, were no less massive than those at Stone- 
henge, varying from five to twenty feet in height. Two entrances 
were approached by two winding avenues, each consisting of a 

his fabulous History of the Britons, pretended that these stones were brought from 
Ireland, and that they were raised to the memory of the British princes fabled to 
have been murdered by Hengist and his Saxons. 

* In the list of the wonders of Britain, written in the earlier half of the 
twelfth century, and given by Henry of Huntingdon, Stonehenge is the second 
wonder. u Apud Stanhenges lapides mirse magnitudinis in modum portarum 
elevati sunt, ut portse portis superpositse videantur, nee potest excogitare qua arte 
elevati sunt, vel qualiter constructi. 11 — " At Stanhenges stones of wonderful 
magnitude are raised in the manner of doors, so that they seem like doors placed over 
doors, nor can any one imagine by what art they were raised, or how constructed." 

"j^LThe young antiquary is particularly to be warned against such speculations 
as have recently been published in a book entitled " The Druidical Temples of the 
County of Wilts," by the Rev. E. Duke, as more calculated to throw ridicule upon 
science than to promote it. Very good accounts of these monuments are given by 
Mr. Britton, in his articles on Stonehenge and Avebury in the " Penny Cyclopaedia." 



chap, il] SINGLE STONES. 61 

double row of upright stones, branching off to the extent of 
about a mile and a half to the west and south. These avenues 
of approach, from their form, have been a fertile subject of 
speculation, and have been imagined to have some connexion 
with the worship of the serpent. At no great distance from the 
outer circle of Aveburj is a fine cromlech with its attendant circle 
of stones. The remains at Avebury are much less known than 
those of Stonehenge ; and they are not easily observed, on 
account of the extent of ground they cover, and its subdivision by 
hedges and other inclosures. The space inclosed by the earthen 
embankment contains a village, with various fields and buildings, 
over which the stones that remain are scattered in apparent 
confusion. 

Stones which have been classed by our antiquaries under the 
indiscriminate title of druidic, but which come under the head 
of none of the monuments already described, are found in groups, 
or singly scattered over many parts of our island. Some of these 
appear to be natural formations, others have been set up at 
different periods for various purposes, and others are probably the 
remains of cromlechs and circles. Geologists and antiquaries 
seem now generally agreed that the rocking-stones are not works 
of art, but that they are the result of natural causes, and that 
they have been classed erroneously among druidic remains. In the 
neighbourhood of Boroughbridge, in Yorkshire, there are masses of 
scattered rocks which in the same manner have been erroneously 
supposed to be druidical. In some cases a few scattered stones are 
the remains of circles or avenues. Single stones belonging to a long 
avenue of this kind are still traced here and there in a line from 
the foot of the hill on which Kits-Cotty House stands, across 
the valley to the opposite chalk-hills, a distance of five miles. 
Celtic antiquaries have given to these single stones the names of 
peulvan, (i. e. stone pillar), and menhir, (long stone). They have 
no doubt been erected at different periods, and for different 
purposes. Some, as I have just observed, are the last remains of 
cromlechs. Others are sepulchral monuments, often of the 
Roman or post-Roman period, which is proved sometimes by 
inscriptions. Several such inscribed stones have been found in 
Wales and Cornwall ; and there is a celebrated one near Join ville, 
in France, with the inscription in Roman characters, viromarys 
istatili f (Viromarus the son of Istatilius). Two, found in 



62 THE BRITONS. [chap. n. 

the neighbourhood of Neath, in Glamorganshire, (the Boman 
Nidum) have severally the inscriptions imp. c. fla. val. maximino 
invicto augus [to], and imp. m. c. piavonio victorino augusto, 
and were perhaps boundary-stones or mile-stones. There is a rough 
uninscribed stone of this description, perhaps a boundary-stone, 
standing on the common at Harrowgate, in Yorkshire, concerning 
which the inhabitants can only tell you, that " the oldest man 
that ever lived there knows nothing about it." A single stone, 
or peulvan, in the department of the Haute-Marne in France, is 
said to bear a Latin inscription,, stating that it marked the ancient 
limits of the Leuci. That such stones marked the sites of battles, 
or were memorials of celebrated events, is a mere assumption. 
Although the stones of the so-called druidic monuments are in 
general rough and untouched with a tool, some instances are known, 
as in the extraordinary sepulture of Gavr'inis in the Morbihan, 
(Britany), and at New Grange, in Ireland, where they have been 
sculptured with rude ornaments. In some instances in England, 
one of the stones of a cromlech is pierced with a round hole, 
perhaps accidental, or the result of caprice. 

Long after the people who raised them had passed away, 
and when their meaning, or the object for which they were erected, 
were alike forgotten, these monuments of stone continued to be 
regarded by the peasantry with reverence, which, combined with 
a certain degree of mysterious fear, degenerated into a sort of 
superstitious worship. In this feeling originated legends 
connected with them, and the popular names which are often 
found attached to them. Stonehenge was called the Giant's 
Dance (chorea gigantwn), a name no doubt once connected with 
a legend which has been superseded by the story attached to it by 
Geoffrey of Monmouth. A circle in Cornwall, of which we have 
given a sketch on a former page, is called Dance Maine, or the 
dance of stones, and is said to be the representation of a party of 
young damsels who were turned into stones because they danced 
on the sabbath day. According to a somewhat similar legend, a 
party of soldiers, who came to destroy Long Compton, were changed 
into the Kollrich stones in Oxfordshire. The people of Britany 
declare that the extraordinary multitude of stones arranged 
upright in lines at Carnac, was an army of pagans changed into 
stones by St. Cornilly. As we have seen, the Saxons believed 
that a cromlech in Berkshire was a workshop of their mythic 



chap, h.] SUPERSTITIONS. 63 

smith Weland. A cromlech on Marlborough Downs is called the 
Devil's Den. Legends like these, which are found in every part 
of our island, are generally good evidence of the great antiquity 
of the monuments to which they relate. In France, as in 
England, and indeed in most countries, they are usually con- 
nected in the popular belief with fairies or with demons — and in 
England, with Eobin Hood. In France this latter personage is 
replaced by Gargantua, a name made generally celebrated by the 
extraordinary romance of Rabelais. A cromlech near the village 
of Toury, in Britany, is called Gargantua's stone ; a not uncom- 
mon name for the single stone or menhir is palet de Gargantua 
(Gargantua's quoit). A very common name for cromlechs among 
the peasantry of France is fairies' tables, or devils' tables, and in 
one or two instances they have obtained the name of Caesar's 
table ; the covered alleys, or more complicated cromlechs, are 
similarly named fairies' grottos, or fairy rocks. The single 
stones are sometimes called fairies' or devils' seats. The prohi- 
bition to worship stones occurring so frequently in the earlier 
Christian ecclesiastical laws and ordinances, relates no doubt to 
these druidical monuments, and was often the cause of their 
destruction. Traces of this worship still remain. In some 
instances people passed through the druidical monuments for 
trial, or for purification, or as a mode of defensive charm. It is 
still a practice among the peasantry at Columbiers, in France, for 
young girls who want husbands, to climb upon the cromlech called 
the Pierre-levee, place there a piece of money, and then jump 
down. At Guerande, with the same object, they depose in the 
crevices of a Celtic monument bits of rose-coloured wool tied with 
tinsel. The women of Croisic dance round a menhir. It is the 
popular belief in Anjou, that the fairies, as they descended the 
mountains spinning by the way, brought down the druidical 
stones in their aprons, and placed them as they are now found. 

In a great number of cases, the British cromlechs, like the 
barrows of other periods, are placed on lofty hills, commanding 
extensive views of the sea, if on the coast, or, when inland, of the 
surrounding country. It seems always to have been the desire of 
the chiefs to be buried in such commanding positions. A cromlech 
at Molfra, in Cornwall, is thus situated on a bare hill, which com- 
mands a wide range of view over Mount's Bay. The mound of 
some Celtic chief has once been raised on the elevated summit of 



64 



THE BRITONS. 



[chap. ti. 



Pen-maen-mawr, in Wales, of which the circle of stones that con- 
fined its base alone remains at the present day. It would be 
difficult to select in this respect a finer position than that occupied 
by Kits-Cotty House, in Kent, of which a slight sketch is given 




Kits-Cotty House, in Kent, from the hill above. 

in the accompanying cut. This large cromlech stands on the 
summit of a lofty knoll, a little in advance of the chalk-hill which 
rises behind. Below, the Medway winds in its course from 
Maidstone to Eochester. Further on extends a wide valley, 
bounded on the north by another range of chalk hills. Under 
these latter hills, at the spot indicated in the cut by three crows, 
lies the parish of Addington, in which are several circles, crom- 
lechs, and other early sepulchral monuments, and from this spot, 
proceeding in a direct line eastward, large upright stones are 
found at intervals, which seem to have belonged to an avenue 
extending from the group of monuments at Addington to the foot 
of the hill on which Kits-Cotty House stands, a distance of not 
less than five miles. The hill behind Kits-Cotty House is also 
covered with sepulchral monuments, consisting of smaller crom- 
lechs and circles, either thrown down or partly buried ; and there 
are several remarkable cromlechs and circles in the fields below ; 
all seeming to indicate that this valley was the burial-place of a 
British tribe. Another class of monuments are found on the hill 



chap, il] OPENING OF BARKOWS. 65 

above Kits-Cotty House. Large stones, resembling the men-hirs, 
are found lying flat on the ground, and, on excavating, it is dis- 
covered that they are placed over round pits cut in the chalk, and 
filled up with flints. None of these have yet been carefully 
investigated, but, on the opposite hills, and in other parts in the 
neighbourhood, are found similar pits open, communicating with 
chambers cut in the chalk, regarding the purpose of which many 
conjectures have been hazarded, but it is not improbable that 
they were sepulchral. 

Very few of the cromlechs and stone chambers in Britain had 
been uncovered from their mounds of earth in recent times, 
under proper examination. This deficiency has been compen- 
sated, in some measure, by the extensive and careful researches 
among the cromlechs of the Channel Islands, by Mr. Lukis,* 
although there would, no doubt, be found a marked difference 
between their contents, which belong to Gaul, and those of the 
British monuments of a similar character. But there is another 
numerous class of barrows which are generally considered to be 
British, but which do not contain the sepulchral chamber or 
cromlech. Numerous examples of this class of barrows have 
been opened in Wiltshire, Dorsetshire, and Derbyshire, and a few 
in other parts. f These are the only barrows in this country 
which have furnished us, to any extent, with articles which, from 
a chain of indirect evidence, are believed to be British. These 
barrows differ very much in form and size. The interment is 
sometimes placed on the level of the ground, and sometimes in a 
shallow grave dug below the surface, with variations in the manner 
of burial which can only have arisen from individual caprice. 

* Mr. Lukis's different accounts of his researches in the Channel Islands, will 
be found in the first volume of the " Archaeological Journal," pp. 142, 222; and 
in the "Journal of the Archaeological Association/' vol. i., pp. 25, 305, 311 ; 
vol. iii., pp. 4, 269, 342 ; vol. iv., p. 323. 

i* Numerous barrows in Wiltshire were opened by Mr. W. Cunnington and 
Sir Richard Colt Hoare, the latter of whom has given copious descriptions of them 
in his " Ancient Wiltshire ; " those of Derbyshire have been largely examined by 
Mr. Thomas Bateman, and described in a very useful volume, the " Vestiges of 
the Antiquities of Derbyshire. " Some of the British barrows in eastern York- 
shire have been opened by Lord Londesborough ; many of those of Dorsetshire 
were opened by the late Mr. Sydenham, by Mr. Warne, Mr. C. Hall, and other 
local antiquaries, whose reports of their discoveries are found scattered over the 
volumes of the M Archaeologia," and of the i( Journal of the Archaeological 
Association." 



66 THE BRITONS. [chap. n. 

The body is sometimes found to have been buried entire, while, 
perhaps, in a majority of cases, it had been burnt, and the ashes 
deposited in rude urns. When the body was interred without 
cremation or burning, it was sometimes stretched at full length, 
and at others doubled up and laid on one side, or sometimes 
placed in a sitting position. The urns containing the burnt bones 
are sometimes found in their natural position, and sometimes 
inverted, with the mouth downwards. When upwards, the urn is 
often covered with a flat stone. There is no evidence to support 
the conjectures of some writers, that these different modes of 
burial belong to different dates ; it seems more probable that they 
were fashions adopted by different families, or by subdivisions of 
tribes or septs, but it would be a vain speculation to attempt to 
give a decided opinion on such questions, with the little we know 
of the manners and history of the ancient inhabitants of the 
island. It is certain, however, that all these different modes of 
interment are often found in the same barrow, for some of the 
barrows seem to have been family graves, and it is rare to find 
only one interment, while the larger barrows contain usually a 
considerable number of urns and bodies. In many cases these 
are distinguishable into primary and secondary interments, and 
so on, and in opening these barrows the excavator is never sure 
in what part of the mound he will find a deposit. A very large 
barrow near Dorchester, was found to consist of a low primary 
barrow, on which subsequently a second interment had been 
placed, and then a new mound raised over it. Sometimes the 
different interments are arranged in regular order. In the 
Deverill barrow, between Whitechurch and Milbourne St. Andrew, 
in Dorsetshire, opened in 1825, and described in a little volume 
by W. Augustus Miles, the urns were found arranged in a 
circle under protecting stones. Throughout these early barrows 
we find much irregularity, and evidently a good deal of caprice 
in the mode of burial. 

To judge by the barrows hitherto opened, it was not the custom 
of the Britons to inter with their dead many articles of value. 
By much the greater number of barrows, whether large or small, 
are found to contain nothing but urns and burnt bones. In some 
cases we find a few implements of stone or bronze, and, in much 
rarer instances, beads and fragments apparently of other personal 
ornaments occur. As these articles furnish the only evidence of 



CHAP. II.] 



BRITISH POTTERY. 



67 



the age of the barrow, and as they admit of easy classification, they 
deserve particular attention. The pottery, as being of more 
universal occurrence, demands our first consideration. It is in 
general, though not always, very rudely made, not baked, but 
merely dried in the sun. Its forms are peculiar, and havo none 
of the elegance of the Roman urns. They are ornamented more 
or less with parallel lines, zigzags, crosses, dots, and other marks, 
which appear usually to have been made by the hand, with some 
instrument like a stick sharpened to a point, though they are 
sometimes more elaborately and skilfully worked. Many, how- 
ever, have no ornament at all, which are usually those containing 
burnt bones. 

A few examples are here given of the more ordinary forms of 
of what are believed, and apparently with good reason, to be 
British urns. The most remarkable, and in general the most 




British Pottery. 



carefully ornamented, class of British earthen vessels is that of 
which specimens are here given, marked 1, 2, 3, 4. They vary 
much in size, and in general have nothing in them. Some have 
called them incense cups, while others have believed them to be 

f2 



THE BRITONS. [chap. ii. 



drinking cups. No. 1 was found by Sir Richard Colt Hoare, at 
the side of a skeleton in a barrow near Stonehenge ; the original 
is about nine inches and a half high. No. 4, found by Mr. Cun- 
nington, also in a barrow in Wiltshire, was about the same height, 
and six inches and a half in diameter over the brim, holding 
about two quarts. This was a red ware, not bright like the 
Roman pottery called Samian ware ; and Mr. Cunnington found, 
at the same time, a much smaller vessel, of the same form, but 
of a darker coloured pottery. Nos. 2 and 3 were found by 
Mr. Bateman : the first in a barrow called Green Lowe, on Alsop 
Moor, in Derbyshire, with a skeleton ; and the other in a large 
barrow at Castern, near Wetton, in Staffordshire, also with a 
skeleton. In the latter instance, Mr. Bateman says, that the 
vase had internally an incrustation, as though it had contained 
some liquid when deposited in the grave. Urns of this descrip- 
tion, which are baked, and not sun-dried, are found more frequently 
in the south of England than elsewhere. One found by Sir 
Richard Colt Hoare, in a barrow at Stonehenge, was not above 
three inches high. These cups are usually found with skeletons. 
The urns, Nos. 5 and 6, are from barrows in the neighbourhood 
of Dorchester, opened by Mr. Sydenham, and described in the 
thirtieth volume of the Archaeologia. The first was seven inches 
and a half, the other nine inches in height, and both had con- 
tained burnt bones. Urns of the form No. 6, are frequently 
found in an inverted position. Nos. 7, 8, 9, and 10, are urns 
found with a great many others, more or less similar in form, in 
the Deverill barrow. The loops found in Nos. 7 and 9 occur not 
unfrequently in these British urns, but it is uncertain if they 
were intended for fixing cords for suspension, or if they were 
merely ornamental. An urn closely resembling No. 7, and found 
in a cromlech in the Channel Islands, has been engraved by 
Mr. Lukis. The other three, and especially No. 10, bear a 
rather striking resemblance in form to a class of burial urns, which 
recent researches have proved to be Saxon, although they were 
formerly considered British. Specimens of these will be given 
further on ; but one, taken from an Anglo-Saxon cemetery near 
Derby, is given here, No. 12, for the sake of comparison. The 
Anglo-Saxon urns are generally harder baked than the British ; 
they are distinguished by some peculiarities in the form, and on 
closer examination the ornament will be seen to be of a different 



chap, il] IMPLEMENTS OF STONE. 69 

character, and made in a different manner. No. 11, in our 
cut, is an urn containing burnt bones, taken from a barrow in 
Cornwall. Similar urns are found in Wiltshire, Dorsetshire, and 
other parts, and especially in Yorkshire. 

The foregoing are the more usual forms of British pottery, and 
will serve to give a general notion of its character. Many other 
varieties, and some much more rude in form and construction, 
occur, but they will generally be recognised by the similarity of 
ornament to those given here. 

As we have already observed, the other articles found in the 
British barrows are not much diversified, and are of rare occur- 
rence. They consist chiefly of implements of stone and implements 
of bronze. Those made of the former materials are usually the 
heads of axes or hammers, chisels, and arrow-heads. 

Implements made of stone are found abundantly in all parts of 
the British Islands, and we might add, all over the world ; and 
nothing seems more natural, not only in a very rude state of 
society, but also in much more civilised times, when communica- 
tion between different parts of the country was slow, and metal was 
not always to be had, than to form rough tools or weapons, especially 
for the chase, of hard stones. Stones of a siliceous character, which 
were chipped into the required forms without much difficulty, were 
used most generally for this purpose. But other kinds of stone 
were also used.* Our cut on the next page represents a few 
of the more usual types of the implements of stone found in this 
country, chiefly taken from originals preserved in the museum 
of the Society of Antiquaries. Nos. 1 and 2 are different samples 
of axe-heads, the first, which is elaborately cut, found by 
Mr. Bateman in a barrow in Derbyshire, the other from the bed 
of the Severn at Ribbeeford in Worcestershire ; 3 and 4 appear to 
have been used as chisels, and are very sharp at the broad end. 
No. 8 is a spear head ; 9 is an instrument apparently intended 
for stabbing or boring ; 7 is a chisel of a different form from the 
others; and 10 is a piece of flint notched at the edge, so as to 
serve as a saw. Several of these stone saws have been found in 

* Mr.Lukis (Journal of the Br. Arch. Ass., vol. iii., p. 127) gives the following list 
of the substances from which stone weapons in his possession, chiefly found in the 
Channel Islands, are made : serpentine, greenstone, granular greenstone, indurated 
claystone, trap greenstone, claystone. quartz, syenite, schistus, yellow hornstone or 
chert, granular porphyry, siliceous schist, serpentine or jade. 



70 



THE BRITONS. 



[chap. II. 



different parts of England. Nos. 5 and 6 are arrow-heads, taken 
by Sir Richard Colt Hoare from barrows in Wiltshire, where, as 
well as in Derbyshire, they are frequently found. 




Implements of Stone. 

Stone knives are mentioned in the Old Testament (Joshua v. 2.), 
in a way which shows that implements of this material may have 
been employed at times for special purposes. It has been 
assumed rather hastily that where we find these implements of 
stone, the people to whom they belonged were not acquainted 
with the art of working metals. That stone and metal were in 
use for such implements at the same time is quite evident from 
the manner in which they occur together. In the tumuli in 
Wiltshire, the stone arrow-heads are usually found with bronze 
daggers. In Derbyshire stone implements are found not only 
with bronze, but with iron. Thus, in a barrow opened at Minning- 
lowe by Mr. Bateman, an upper deposit of two skeletons was 
accompanied with an urn, a flint arrow-head, a small piece of 
iron, and part of a horse's bit ; and lower down in the same 
barrow, an earlier interment, in a stone cist or cromlech, was 
accompanied with an iron knife or dagger in a sheath of the same 
metal. Another interment in the same barrow was accompanied 



chap, n.] IMPLEMENTS OF STONE. 71 

_ 

with an ornamented urn of the same description as the four first 
figures in the preceding group of British pottery, a small brass 
pin, and an arrow-head of grey flint. In a small harrow at 
Middle ton-by-Yolgrave, a flint arrow-head was found with one of 
the small bronze chisels or axes, which will be described further 
on. In a barrow called Carder-lowe, along with a great number 
of implements of flint, were found a bronze dagger and an iron 
knife ; there had been several interments, no doubt at different 
periods, but the bronze dagger was found in a lower, and therefore 
older, deposit than one which contained nothing but flint imple- 
ments. A large barrow opened by Mr. Bat em an in 1846, was 
supported at the base by a regular circle of large stones, and had 
in the interior a cromlech. Within the latter was found a 
skeleton, which was accompained with " a brass dagger of the 
usual type, measuring six inches and a quarter in length, and in 
the highest preservation ; it has the appearance of having been 
silvered, and still retains a brilliant polish. . . . near it were 
two instruments of flint, and two more were found during the 
progress of the examination of the tumulus." A barrow with a 
cromlech cist opened by the same gentleman in 1847, contained 
a skeleton, with a flint spear-head and a bronze pin or bodkin, 
which had been inserted in a wooden handle. 

The stone chisels or axes are less frequently found in tumuli, 
than in accidental localities where there is nothing to fix their 
date or to indicate the people to whom they belonged. They 
are sometimes met with in a very rough condition, and sometimes 
more or less finished, and, in one or two instances, bundles of 
finished and rough stone implements have been found, as though 
they belonged to the stores of a manufacturer. This is most fre- 
quently the case with the arrow-heads. In other instances, espe- 
cially in Scotland, bundles of flint chippings, or, as they have 
been termed, flint flakes, have been found, which appear to have 
been struck off from a solid mass, and, as these generally occur 
in districts where flint is not found naturally, we are justified in 
regarding them as importations of the rough article, merely 
formed to the size required by the manufacturer. In examining 
these implements in the different stages of their manufacture, as 
thus presented to us, we become convinced that not only must im- 
plements of metal have been used in making them, but that some 
machine like a lathe must have been used in boring and finishing 



72 



THE BRITONS. 



[chap n. 



them. Besides the fact just stated of their having been depo- 
sited in the same interments with instruments of metal, insulated 
facts have occurred corroborating the conclusions which we should 
naturally draw from this circumstance. In France some of the 
stone implements are said to have been found with handles of 
bone, but we are assured of a circumstance more interesting, that 
at old Toulouse one of these stone implements was found, in the 
place of its original deposit, surrounded with a circle or ferret of 
iron that had evidently fixed it to its handle.* Instances might 
be adduced of the continuation of the use of implements of stone 
down to a much more recent date. According to the recital of 
William of Poitiers, some of the Anglo-Saxons fought with 
weapons of stone at the battle of Hastings ; f and they are said 
to have been employed by the Scots as late as the wars of 
Wallace. 




8 2 

Implements of bronze. 



The older implements of metal found in this island are 
generally of bronze. I here give a group of the more usual forms 



* See a paper in the Memoires de la Societe Archceologique du Midi de la 
France, torn, i., p. 78. 

f Jactant cuspides ac diversorum generum tela, ssevissimas quasque secures, et 
ligriis imposita saxa; p. 201, ap. Duchesne. These stones, fixed on pieces of 
wood, appear to have been for striking, as with clubs. 



chap, il] BRONZE " CELTS." 73 

of those attributed generally to the British period, all, except 
No. 8, taken from specimens in the museum of the Society of 
Antiquaries. No. 1 is the usual form of the bronze axe-head or 
chisel, to which the name of celt has been given, not because it was 
conceived to be characteristic of the Celtic race, but because our 
earlier antiquaries supposed it to be the instrument to which the 
Romans gave the name of celtis (a chisel) ..* It has a socket for 
receiving the handle. Nos. 2 and 3, the latter found in the Isle 
of Thanet, and now in the museum of Mr. Crofton Croker, are 
also common forms, with a different contrivance for fixing the 
handle. No. 4 is another variety, exhibiting a much rarer form. 
There can be no doubt that these were tools in very common 
use by workmen in England at some period, for they are found 
very frequently, though very rarely in sepulchral interments, all 
over the island ; and rather numerous instances have occurred of 
the discovery of considerable quantities of them, whole or broken, 
under circumstances that can leave no doubt of their having 
been the stock in trade of some maker of such instruments. 
They are found in great abundance in the county of Norfolk; 
and they generally occur along with chisels of different forms, 
and sometimes with spear-heads and daggers. In a meadow at 
Stibbard, in the county of Norfolk, no less than seventy of the 
so-called celts, and ten spear-heads of bronze, were found in a 
single lot. In 1845, a quantity of such instruments, including 
the chisels, or axe-heads of the usual forms, with punches, 
gouges, and other similar instruments, as well as several pieces of 
unused metal, one of which appeared to have been the residuum 
left in the melting-pot, were found at a village near Attleborough, 

* The earliest dissertation on these instruments I know, is one by the well-known 
antiquary, Thomas Hearne, to whom the historian Thoresby communicated some 
examples in his possession, found in Yorkshire Hearne wrote a long and learned 
epistle to Thoresby, in the December of 1709, which he printed as an appendix to 
the first volume of his edition of Leland's Itinerary, under the title of " A 
Discourse concerning some Antiquities found in Yorkshire," and in which he 
stated his opinion that these instruments were the Roman celtes or chisels. This 
opinion seems to have been generally acquiesced in by Hearne's contemporaries, 
and this particular tool obtained the name of a celtis or celt. Subsequent writers, 
ascribing these instruments to the Britons, have retained the name, forgetting its 
origin, and have applied it indiscriminately not only to other implements of bronze, 
but even to the analogous instruments of stone. It is not good as a technical 
term, because it is mistaken too generally as implying that things to which it is 
applied are Celtic, and it would therefore be better to lay it aside. 



74 THE BRITONS. [chap. ii. 

in the same county. A similar discovery of bronze chisels, 
gouges, &c, with portions of a bronze sword, was made at Sitting- 
bourne, in Kent. More recently, at Westow, about twelve miles 
from York, a collection of sixty similar instruments, presenting 
the same varieties, with the addition of a piece of dagger or 
sword, and a similar piece of bronze, which appeared to be the 
residuum from melting, were found in an earthern jar or vase. A 
very similar hoard was found in the parish of Lanant, in Corn- 
wall, in the year 1802 ; and Leland has recorded the discovery 
of a similar hoard in the parish of St. Hilary, in the same county, 
in the time of Henry VIII.* A parcel of the so-called celts, 
spear-heads, and fragments of swords, of bronze, were found by 
Mr. Lukis in the Isle of Alderney, under similar circumstances. 

No. 7, in our cut, represents a bronze chisel, from a specimen 
in the museum of the Society of Antiquaries, and will serve to 
give a general idea of the forms of these instruments, as found 
with the " celts." We are convinced at once that all these 
instruments have been cast in moulds, and accordingly several 
examples of these moulds have been found, both in England and 
other countries. I have given examples, Nos. 6 and 7, from 
casts in the museum of the Society of Antiquaries, of two such 
moulds, found in Normandy ; they represent the two varieties of 
which we have examples in the cut, Nos. 1, 2, and 3. No. 8, in 
our cut, is a fragment of a bronze saw. 

I have stated that antiquarian writers have been in the habit of 
calling these bronze tools British, but I am inclined to believe 
that Hearne was nearer the truth when he pronounced them to be 
Roman. The localities in which they have been usually found, 
especially when they have occurred in any quantities, have gene- 
rally been Roman sites. One of the moulds engraved above, is said 
to have been found by the side of a Roman road, and the other at a 
place well known for its Roman antiquities. The discovery at 
Sittingbourne, in Kent, was made also near a Roman road, in the 
immediate vicinity of an extensive Saxon cemetery, and, perhaps, 

* " There was found of late yeres syns, spere heddes, axis for warre, and.swerdes, 
of coper, wrappid up in lynin scant perishid, nere the mount in St. Hilaries paroch 
in the tynne works." — Leland's Itin., ed. Hearne, vol. iii., p. 7. The discoveries 
alluded to in the text will be found more fully described in the " Archaeologia," 
vol. xv., p. 118 ; in the "Journal of the British Archaeological Association," vols, 
i., pp. 51, 59, and ii., pp. 9, 58 ; and in Mr. Roach Smith's Collectanea Antiqua, 
vol. i., pp. 101, 105. 



CHAP, n.] 



BRONZE SWORDS. 



75 



further researches will lay open Koman remains. The general 
shape and character of these instruments seem to be much more 
like Roman than anything we know of Celtic make ; and I believe 
they are found in Italy. The question here raised is, however, 
one of considerable obscurity, until further discoveries, and a 
more careful observation of the circumstances under which they 
are found, shall enable us to clear it away. 




2 3 

Bronze swords. 



The fragments of swords found in one or two instances with 
these parcels of bronze instruments, were apparently placed 



76 THE BRITONS. [chap. ii. 

there as old metal. They belong to a class which have usually 
been considered as Celtic by English antiquaries, but which I 
have been always inclined to regard as unmistakeably Roman. 
They are found in England and Scotland, in Ireland, in Denmark 
(less frequently), in Germany, in France, and, I believe, in Italy. 
Four specimens are given in the accompanying cut. The first 
is preserved in the museum of the Society of Antiquaries of 
England, but it is uncertain where it was found. The second was 
found at Arthur's Seat, near Edinburgh, and is now preserved in 
the museum of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland. The 
third was found in the bed of the Thames, near Vauxhall, and 
the fourth at Tiverton, near Bath. The two last are engraved in 
the Journal of the Archaeological Association. They are short, 
usually from sixteen to eighteen inches in length, and were 
evidently used for thrusting rather than for cutting. 

These swords, in whatever country we find them, are so uniform 
in shape, that we can hardly doubt their being all the workmanship 
of one people. They do not answer the ancient descriptions of the 
swords used by the Celts and Germans, who, from the time when 
Marius encountered the Cimbrians and Teutons, to the great 
battle in which Agricola defeated the Britons under Galgacus, 
are described as using long pointless swords.* Indeed, I believe, 
all people in a rude state, whose soldiers are not highly disciplined, 
are more apt to use swords for striking than thrusting. We 
know that the Romans had an advantage over their British foes in 
close combat, from the very circumstance, that they used their short 
and pointed swords in thrusting, while the Britons were unable 
to use with the same effect their long pointless ones. The swords 
of the form figured above have, I think, been generally found 
on or near Roman sites. Many are taken up from the Thames, 
where such multitudes of Roman antiquities are found, but no 
other swords that can be accounted Roman. The question, 
however, seems to be set at rest by discoveries in France. One 
of these swords was found at Heilly, in the department of the 
Somme, with other articles, among which were four brass coins of 
Caracalla ; and another was found in another locality along with 

* Besides the mention of these long swords in the accounts of the battles 
mentioned in the text, Dion Cassius, lib. xxxviii, c. 49, in his account of Caesar's 
battle with Ariovistus, in Gaul, mentions the large long swords of the barbarians. 



chap, n.] INSTRUMENTS OF..BRONZE. 77 

skeletons and coins, some of which belonged to the emperor 
Maxentius, so that they could not have been deposited there 
before the beginning of the fourth century after Christ.* Jt may 
be added, that in the museum of the Louvre, in Paris, there is 
one of these bronze leaf-shaped swords, (as they are usually 
termed,) with its sheath, the latter undoubtedly Roman ; and 
I am informed that there is another similar sword and sheath in 
the Musee de l'Artillerie, also in Paris. 

It is well known that the use of copper and bronze for weapons 
and other instruments preceded that of iron. Copper weapons 
are supposed to have preceded those of bronze. The alloy of tin 
in the latter metal gave it a hardness and brittleness not possessed 
by the pure copper, and the ancients are said, though on late and 
doubtful authority, to have employed a method of tempering it as 
we do steel. The weapons of the Homeric age were of these 
materials, which appear to have been regarded almost with a 
superstitious veneration by the Romans. In the treaty between 
Porsena and the Roman people, about four hundred years before 
the Christian era, it was expressly stipulated that the Romans 
should not use iron except for implements of agriculture.! It was 
not till three hundred years later, that is, after the second Punic 
war, that the Romans began to use iron in the fabrication of arms ; 
and it is a very remarkable circumstance, that in the battle in 
which the Gauls were defeated by the consul iEmilius, when the 
Romans used swords of bronze, those of the Gauls, as we are 
told by Polybius, were long and so badly tempered, that they bent 
when the Gallic warriors struck a hard blow against the Roman 
armour. It would appear, from their being tempered, that they 
were made of iron.]; 

Among the most curious of the instruments of bronze found in 
this country, are the daggers or knives, which are not unfrequently 
found in the barrows, supposed to be British, and were no doubt 
peculiar to the people who were buried in them. The usual forms 

* These are described in the fifth volume of the Memoires of the Institute of 
France, class of Litter uture et beaux arts, pp. 193 and 501. I give the reference 
from the work of M. Mauduit, mentioned below. 

+ In foedere quod repulsis regibus populo Romano dedit Porsena, nominative 
comprehensum invenimus, ne ferro nisi in agricultura uterentur. — Plinii Hist. 
Nat. lib. xxxiv., c. 14. 

% Much information on the early use of bronze will be found m the De'couvertes 
dans la Troade, by M. Mauduit, Paris, 1840. 



73 



THE BRITONS. 



[chap. n. 



of these instruments will be best understood by the accompanying 
cut. They are found frequently without handles, but with the 
rivets which fixed them on, and the blade generally bears marks of 




or knives. 



having been placed in a shank of wood. The handle appears to 
have been generally of the same material, and has only been 
preserved where, in particular instances, it has been made of ivory 
or bone. The blades are from six to ten inches long; sometimes 
they are much smaller. At first, until one was found with a 
handle, they were supposed to be spear-heads. In a barrow at 
Norman ton, in Wiltshire, Sir Eichard Colt Hoare found the 
handle of one of these daggers, of wood, richly ornamented with 
zig-zags and lines, resembling those found on the pottery, formed by 
innumerable diminutive points or pins of gold driven into the wood. 
It is in the barrows of Wiltshire and Dorset that these bronze 
daggers are found most abundantly. A few have been met with 
in Derbyshire, and they occur more rarely in Scotland ; they are, 
however, not uncommon in Ireland ; they are also found in Gaul. 
The figure No. 2, in our cut, represents one of these dagger or 
knife blades of the more usual form, which was found in a barrow 
called Dowe-lowe, near Church- Stern dale in Derbyshire, opened 



chap, n.] THE GOLD CORSET. 79 

by Mr. Bateman : it accompanied a skeleton. No. 5, is a dagger 
of the same form, with a handle, found by Sir Richard Colt Hoare 
in a barrow at Brigmilson in Wiltshire, accompanying an urn 
with ashes ; and No. 3 is a blade of exactly the same form, found 
in Ireland, and now in the possession of Mr. Crofton Croker. 
No. 1 is a somewhat similar bronze blade, found at Pitcaitthly, in 
Perthshire ; while the other, No. 4, with the same shaped blade, 
but with its handle of ivory, came from a barrow near Blandford, 
in Dorsetshire. This latter is in a perfect state of preservation ; 
it was found with two bronze spear-heads, lying beside an urn with 
burnt bones. 

There are very few other articles found under circumstances 
which could lead us to ascribe them to the Celtic population of 
our island. Bronze spear-heads, often with loops at the side, are 
found under the same circumstances as the swords, and no doubt 
belonged to the same people. A few personal ornaments, chiefly 
beads, with now and then a piece of bone or metal, are found in 
some of the barrows of Derbyshire, Wiltshire, and Dorset. 
Several discoveries have also been made of circular shields, 
generally of bronze, and of rather small dimensions, which have 
been considered to be British, though the justice of this appro- 
priation is perhaps doubtful. Traces of a metal covering for the 
breast, very thin, and therefore more for ornament than protection, 
have also been found with skeletons, apparently of this early date. 
The most remarkable discovery of this kind was made in the 
October of 1833, at Mold, in Flintshire. A mound, composed of 
pebbles and stones, had long stood at the corner of a field, and it 
was then cleared away for agricultural purposes. It was found to 
contain interments of urns and burnt bones, and also, in another 
part of the mound, a skeleton, round the breast of which was a 
corset of thin gold, embossed with an ornamentation resembling 
nail heads and lines. This interesting article is now in the 
British Museum. This barrow was called by the Welsh peasantry 
bryn-yr-ellyllon, or the hill of fairies or goblins ; and it was 
believed to be haunted. But the most curious circumstance 
connected with it was the declaration, made before it was opened, 
of a woman of the neighbourhood, that, as she was going home late 
one night and had to pass by it, she saw moving over the barrow, 
a spectre " clothed in a coat of gold, which shone like the sun." 

It is the business of the antiquary, by comparing and dis- 



80 THE BRITONS. [chap. ii. 

criminating the objects of each period, to make them throw new 
light on the manners and condition of the people to whom they 
belong, and also to endeavour to trace, by their peculiarities, the 
movements of the different tribes, and the positions they occupied. 
Unfortunately, the antiquities of the British period have as yet 
proved but of little use in either of these points of view. The 
solitary dagger, with the few fragments of pottery, and two or 
three beads or pins, can give us no satisfactory notion of the dress 
or riches of the person who wore them. If, as Caesar says was the 
practice among the Gauls, the Britons buried with their dead all 
the articles of value they possessed, they must indeed have been 
poor. But it is hardly probable that the contents of the graves, 
as we now find them, are any fair measure of the wealth of those 
who were buried in them. We can feel no doubt, after a com- 
parison of their contents, that the cromlechs and the other 
barrows of which we have been speaking, belong to the same 
people, and that they are of about the same date. They occur in 
large groups. The Kits-Cotty House group belongs to Kent; 
there was another group in the valley of the White Horse, in 
Berkshire ; another lay in Oxfordshire ; a larger group lay in 
Dorsetshire ; then came the vast group about Stonehenge ; and 
finally, a tolerably numerous one in Cornwall. The only large group 
of the interior is that of Derbyshire. There is a group towards 
the south-east of Yorkshire, and they are scattered over Wales, 
and in the Isle of Anglesea. This distribution would certainly 
lead us to imagine that the barrows and other monuments of this 
island, which we are accustomed to attribute to the Druids, belong, 
not to the earlier Celtic population, but to the later settlers. If 
this be the case, we might perhaps go further, and assume that 
the British population of the earlier mining districts, Cornwall, 
Wales, and Derbyshire, was also composed of later settlers, who 
knew how to work the metals, of which the earlier aboriginal 
tribes were perhaps ignorant. But these are obscure questions, 
which we are, from want of accurate knowledge, unable to solve ; 
and it must not be forgotten that the cromlechs are numerous in 
Ireland. 

The next question that presents itself, with relation to these 
monuments, is their date, which I am inclined to believe less 
remote than is usually imagined. It has often been a fault 
among antiquaries to be too eager in fixing great antiquity on 



chap, il] THE AGE OF CROMLECHS. 81 

everything about which they were uncertain. The comparison of 
these barrows with one another, while it shows that some of them 
had served apparently for family sepulchres during a length of time, 
would lead us to think that they may in general be placed within 
no very wide limits. In times like these of which we are now 
treating, individuals possessed but a small quantity of personal 
property; the communication between one place and another 
was slow and uncertain; and while one man, by accident or 
through his superior wealth and power, had weapons and other 
implements of bronze or iron, or even of silver and gold, his 
neighbour might be obliged to remain content with a chisel or 
axe of stone, or, if a hunter, he might be satisfied with a few 
flint-headed arrows to his bow. In the same way, one man might 
be rich or ostentatious enough to depose in the grave elegant 
vessels of superior manufacture, while another at the same time 
would use only the rude urn of clay and gravel baked hastily in 
the sun. Nothing indeed is more unsafe than the rule that mere 
rudeness of construction is a proof of antiquity. One or two 
circumstances have been discovered that are certainly rather 
startling. In Belgium, on the borders of the Ardennes, a cromlech 
with a Roman interment in it has been recently found in the 
middle of a Roman cemetery.* A discovery of a somewhat 
similar kind was made by Mr. Bateman, in his researches among 
the barrows of Derbyshire, which he describes as follows : "In 
a plantation on the summit of Minninglowe Hill," he says, "are 
two tumuli of large size, one being nearly fifteen feet high from the 
level of the ground. In the centre, and in four places in the area of 
the circle, are large cists, or, as they now appear, from the soil 
being removed from them, large cromlechs, exactly of the same con- 
struction as that well-known druidical structure, Kits-Cotty House. 
They are formed of the large limestones of the country, and 
have all had covers of the same, only two of which now remain 
in their places. . . . The soil in the interior of the cists of the 

* " Le seul tombeau qui, dans ce cimetiere Romain meritait ce nom, consistait 
en cinq enormes pierres en quartiers de roches. Trois de ces pierces formaient un 
triangle dont les deux autres etaient la base et le couvercle. Dans ce tombeau, 
ainsi que pres des assiettes mortuaires, j'ai trouve des ferrements et des clous, qui 
indiqueraient que ces restes de Romains auraient ete enfermes dans une sorte de 
cercueil en bois, dont il ne reste plus trace." — Bulletin de la Societe Historique et 
Archeologique de Soissons, torn, iii., p. 187. 

Q 



82 THE BRITONS. [chap. n. 

large barrow was removed down to the surface of the rock on the 
5th of July, 1843, when it was found that all the interments had 
been before removed, with the exception of one, which was a 
skeleton, laid at full length on the outside of the cist, unaccom- 
panied by any weapon or ornaments. In the cell near which this 
body lay, were found fragments of five urns, some animal bones, 
and six third brass Roman coins, namely, one of Claudius 
Gothicus, two of Constantine the Great, two of Constantine 
Junior, and one of Valentinian. An attempt to penetrate the 
substance of the mound was then made, which from want of time 
proved ineffectual. A few human teeth, and a third brass coin 
of Constantine, were the only relics found in this part of the 
excavation." Sir Richard Colt Hoare also found Roman coins in 
one of the supposed British barrows in Wiltshire. 

These facts might perhaps be considered to be accidental; 
but it is very remarkable that the only excavation within the area 
of Stonehenge of which we possess any account, brought to light 
Roman remains. We are informed by Aubrey that the Duke of 
Buckingham, in 1620, " did cause the middle of Stonehenge to 
be digged, and this under digging was the cause of the falling 
downe or recumbencie of the great stone there." He tells us that 
in the course of this " digging " they found " a great many horns 
of stags and oxen, charcoal, batter-dashes (?), heads of arrows, 
some pieces of armour eaten out with rust, and rotten bones." 
An inscribed tablet of tin is pretended to have been found at 
Stonehenge, in the reign of Henry VIII. ; and, according to 
Inigo Jones, the cover of a thuribulum., or incense-cup, was found 
within the area at a later period. " In more modern times," adds 
Sir Richard Colt Hoare, whose description is more to be depended 
upon, " we have found, on digging, several fragments of Roman 
as well as of coarse British pottery, parts of the head and 
horns of deer and other animals, and a large barbed arrow-head 
of iron. Dr. Stukeley says that he dug close to the altar, and at 
the depth of one foot came to solid chalk. Mr. Cunnington also 
dug about the same place to the depth of nearly six feet, and 
found that chalk had been moved to that depth; and, at the 
depth of three feet, he found some Roman pottery, and at the 
depth of six feet some pieces of sarsen stones, three fragments of 
eoarse half-baked pottery, and some charred wood. ... In digging 
into the ditch that surrounds the area, Mr. Cunnington found 



chap, il] BRITISH COINS. 



similar remnants of antiquity ; and in the waggon tracks, near 
Stonehenge, you frequently meet with chippings of the stones of 
which the temple was constructed. Soon after the fall of the great 
trilithon in 1797, Mr. Cunnington dug out some of the earth 
that had fallen into the excavation, and found a fragment of fine 
black Eoman pottery, and since that another piece in the same 
spot ; hut I have no idea that this pottery ever lay beneath the 
stones, but probably in the earth adjoining the trilithon, and, 
after the downfal of the latter, it fell with the mouldering earth 
into the excavation." 

Although some of the remains of antiquity which are from time 
to time dug up in our island may belong to an age more remote, 
the most probable view of the case seems to be, that the mass of 
our British antiquities belong to the age immediately preceding 
the arrival of the Eomans, and to the period which followed. 

The date of one class of British antiquities, the coins, are more 
easily fixed, and they will, perhaps, eventually throw some light 
on one period of British history. These coins have been found 
in considerable quantities in most parts of England, often in 
hoards, and they are remarkable for the large proportion in gold 
and silver. Many of them have inscriptions, always in Boman 
characters, which, as far as we can judge from discoveries hitherto 
made, express the names of the chiefs for whom they were 
minted. In form they resemble the Greek coinage, being 
thicker in proportion to their size than Boman coins, and usually 
slightly convex on one side and concave on the other. Some of 
these British coins show a considerable degree of artistic skill, 
and bear distinct representations of human heads, animals, and 
other figures, while a still greater number are extremely rude, 
and some of them bear confused marks and attempts at devices 
which appear totally inexplicable. These, like everything that is 
mysterious, have furnished ground for many theories, founded 
on the supposition that they had some connection with the 
mythology or history of the British tribes. But a more careful 
study and comparison has shown us that the British, like the 
Gallic, coinage consisted merely of imitations from Greek and, 
subsequently, from Boman coins. It appears that when the 
chiefs began to mint money, they adorned it with mere copies of 
the figures on foreign coins brought as models by their coiners, 
and that, while their relations with Borne induced them to adopt 

g2 



84 



THE BRITONS. 



[chap. II. 



Eoman inscriptions, they chose in preference the forms and pic- 
torial devices of the money of Greece, selecting especially those of 
the Macedonian kings. The first minters were probably brought 
over from Gaul, and they made tolerably good copies of the origi- 
nals, as we find to be the case in many of the coins of Cunobe- 
line. Subsequently these copies served again as models to British 
and very unskilful artists, and in their hands they gradually 
degenerated into forms which can only be understood when we 
place them beside the more perfect copies from which they were 
imitated. Sometimes we only trace the British imitation of the 
Greek coin through an intermediate Gallic copy. To explain 
better this gradual degeneration, and give at the same time an 
example of one of the ruder types of the British coins, we subjoin 
a cut representing three gold coins, in their obverses and reverses. 




Greek and British Coins. 



The uppermost is a gold stater of Philip of Macedon. The 
second is a gold coin of one of the Gaulish chiefs, in which the 
head of the king is copied in a very rude manner, with the wreath 
round the Head ; but the charioteer and horses are given in a 



chap, ii.] BRITISH COINS. 85 

manner much more rude, though still distinguishable. The name 
of Philip has been transformed into a rude ornament. The 
lowermost coin is a rude British copy of the same type — one 
of a hoard of British gold coins found in Whaddon Chace. 
Until compared with the two previous coins, we cannot even 
guess at what the coiners intended to represent, but on laying 
the three coins thus side by side, we trace distinctly on the 
obverse the wreath and ears of the head of Philip of Macedon, 
while it is equally evident that the reverse was intended as a copy 
of the charioteer. In this, as in many cases of the British 
coinage, the die was cut clumsily and much larger than the piece 
of metal which was to receive the impression. Henee the coin 
only represents a part of the subject, and as the metal sometimes 
fell on one side of the field, and sometimes on another, we have 
often to compare several examples of a British coin before we get 
the design complete ; and the accidental discovery of one which 
contains a portion of the design not previously found often ex- 
plains what was before unintelligible. Our next cut repre- 
sents another palpable copy of a Greek coin. The large figure is 




Greek and British Coins. 

the obverse of a silver tetradrachm of Alexander the Great, 
in which that monarch is represented under the character of 
Hercules, with the head and mane of the lion's skin over his head, 
and the claws tied in a knot under his neck and chin. The 
smaller coin beside it is a silver coin of a British chief, whose 
name is represented by the Roman letters epat. Mr. Beale 
Poste has, I think, mistaken part of what was intended to 
represent the lion's claws for a Greek K, and he proposes to read 



86 THE BRITONS. [chap, il 

the inscription in Greek characters, KEPAT (kerat), which he 
interprets as referring to Caractacus. But, in general, the 
British coins seem rather to have been struck by chiefs who were 
friendly or submissive to the Romans, than by those who were 
warring against them. The eagle on the reverse of the coin just 
described was probably also copied from a Greek or Roman 
model. Among the Roman coins copied by the Britons is one 
of Augustus, with a figure of Victory seated on the reverse. 
Future examinations and discoveries will, no doubt, lead to the 
identification of them all. A figure of an animal, on some 
British brass coins found in Kent, is evidently the rude copy of 
an elephant, from one of the consular coins. The charioteer 
of the coin of Philip, copied more or less rudely, is rather a 
common reverse of the British coins. Many of the figures, 
still unintelligible, will probably be explained by future dis- 
coveries. One of the reverses of the coins of Tasciovanus, 
which has been described as "an unknown ornament," seems to 
have been intended for the prow of a Roman galley. 

The knowledge of British coins is as yet in its infancy, and 
comparatively little has been done towards classifying them in a 
satisfactory manner. From the process of degeneration shown 
above, and other circumstances, it appears that the ruder coins 
are often to be considered, in point of date, as the latest, and not as 
the earliest. The best in point of workmanship, and the most 
numerous, are those of Tasciovanus and Cunobeline : of the 
latter nearly fifty varieties are already known. Of the names 
inscribed on these coins, the varieties are not numerous, and it 
seems most probable that they all represent chiefs. The greater 
number are, unfortunately, without inscriptions, and, therefore, it 
is impossible from the coins themselves to determine the tribes or 
chiefs to which they belonged. By careful observations of the 
places where they were discovered, certain types have been found 
to be peculiar to certain districts, and it is not unreasonable to 
suppose that they belonged to the British tribes there located. 
But we must wait till further discoveries throw light on this 
subject. It is impossible to say how long the British coinage 
remained in circulation ; but it has been found mixed with 
Roman money, though I believe the latter was of the consular 
period or of the earlier emperors. 

Among the monuments of a remote period which it is most 



chap, il] BRITISH VILLAGES. 87 

difficult to class, are the earthworks and entrenchments which 
are found in considerable numbers in every part of our island. 
In some parts there is scarcely a hill-top which is not crowned 
with a circle of ditches and embankments, and in some cases they 
are of colossal magnitude. These have been ascribed, too indis- 
criminately and too hastily, to the British period, and have been 
called British camps and British towns. In some cases, it will 
be found, on examination, that these entrenchments were merely 
intended to inclose a barrow or a cemetery. Some of them were, 
probably, medieval. They may, in some instances, have inclosed 
a primitive town or village ; and we know that the early Anglo- 
Saxon mansion was a mere structure of wood inclosed by an earthen 
entrenchment. It has been also rather too hastily assumed that 
the Romans never, under any circumstances, departed from the 
rectangular system of eastrametation, which is not justified by a 
careful examination of facts. 

Nevertheless, if there is a difficulty in fixing the date of what 
are usually called British camps, there is one very interesting 
class of earthworks which, doubtless, belong to an early period, and 
which are scattered over many parts of our island. They are 
generally found at some distance from the Roman towns, but 
they are usually not far from Roman roads. These are groups of 
shallow pits, or rather of bowl-shaped excavations, on the surface 
of the ground. These curious works have been observed with most 
care by Sir Richard Colt Hoare, in Wiltshire, who calls them 
British villages; but they occur in Leicestershire, Derbyshire, 
Yorkshire, and, probably, in most other parts of the country, 
where the traces of them have not been obliterated by cultiva- 
tion ; but some of the most perfect specimens are met with on 
the Wiltshire downs. Two such traces of settlements are found 
on Knook Down, near Heytesbury, which seem to have been pro- 
tected by an ancient fortress, now called Knook Castle. Sir 
Richard Colt Hoare states that " the site of these villages is de- 
cidedly marked by great cavities and irregularities of ground, and 
by a black soil. When the moles were more abundant, numerous 
coins were constantly thrown up by them, as well as fragments of 
pottery of different species. On digging in these excavations, we 
find the coarse British pottery, and almost every species of what 
has been called Roman pottery ; also fibula, and rings of brass 
worn as armillce or bracelets; flat-headed iron nails, hinges of 



88 THE BRITONS. [chap. n. 

doors, locks and keys, and a variety of Roman coins, of which the 
small brass of the lower empire are the most numerous, and par- 
ticularly those of the Constantine family. Of the larger and first 
brass, we have coins of Vespasian, Nerva, Antoninus, Trajan, 
Julia Mammsea, and Postumus ; of the denarii, we have 
Caligula, the elder Faustina, Julia Mammaea, the elder Philip, 
Gallienus, and Gratianus : the small brass are too numerous to 
particularise, but some of the smallest are remarkable, having 
only a radiated head (often very rude), and one or two Roman 
letters, which, perhaps, may have been struck during the latest 
struggles between the Britons and Saxons. In digging within 
these British villages, we have but rarely discovered any signs of 
building with stone or flint ; but we have several times found 
very thin stones laid as floors to a room. The fire-places were 
small excavations in the ground, in which we have frequently 
found a large flat hearthstone ; and in two parts of this extensive 
village we have discovered hypocausts similar to those in the 
Roman villa at Pitmead, near Warminster. These are regular 
works of masonry, made in the form of a cross, and covered with 
large flat stones, well cemented by mortar. We have also, during 
our investigations of this spot, repeatedly found pieces of painted 
stucco, and of brick flues ; also pit-coal, and some fragments of 
glass, or crystal, rings, beads, &c. In one of the banks raised 
for the old habitations, we discovered a skeleton with its head laid 
towards the north ; at its feet was a fine black celt [of stone], and 
at the distance of a few feet was a bead. In this, as well as in 
the generality of other British villages, the attentive eye may 
easily trace out the lines of houses, and the streets, or rather 
hollow ways conducting to them ; these are particularly visible in 
the upper village on these downs, as well as the entrance to it. 
The whole adjoining country is also strongly marked by the 
intersection of slight banks along the sides of the hills, which 
point to us the limits of ancient British cultivation, and in many 
instances the smallness of them will show the contracted scale on 
which agriculture was at that time carried on." 

Several groups of similar works are described by the same 
writer in different parts of his great work on ancient Wiltshire. 
Of these not the least remarkable is the very extensive group 
called the Pen Pits, near Stourton, the character of which appears 
somewhat doubtful. Another group, of a more definite character, 



chap, n.] BRITISH VILLAGES. 



runs along the brow of a slight eminence in the neighbourhood of 
Wily, known by the popular name of Stockton Works. " Stockton 
Works," says Sir Richard Colt Hoare, " appear to have been 
originally surrounded by a ditch, and a single rampart of earth, 
of which a considerable part towards the east still remains ; but 
the western boundary, and many of the interior works, have been 
much defaced by a great waggon track, which for many ages has 
passed through the works. The original entrance was on the 
eastern side, near the head of a steep valley ; but many other adits, 
of a more modern date, have been made for the accommodation 
of waggons frequenting the wood. At one point there is also an 
entrance to an inner work, where we see numerous excavations, 
&c, and near the centre is a singular little work of a pentagonal 
form ; and beyond it the irregularities and cavities continue deep 
and numerous for a considerable distance to the westward. These 
works cover the space of sixty-two acres, and extended, probably, 
much further towards the west, and into the wood on the south, 
but they are so defaced in many places, and in others so very 
doubtful, that what now remains can only be considered as a very 
imperfect specimen of the original works. We have dug in 
various places within the area, and found both large and small 
Roman coins, pieces of brass, iron nails, fragments of millstones, 
brick flues, tiles, and both British and Roman pottery ; also the 
neck of a glass bottle, of a sea-green colour ; in short, all the 
vestiges of a numerous population." The writer from whom we 
are quoting adds : — " A series of coins, from the first Claudius to 
Theodosius, mark also their continued residence on this spot for 
a long period ; they are so numerous and common, that the 
labourers employed to dig flints throw them up and leave them 
amongst the stones : twice, on visiting these works, I found coins 
in this situation." 

There can be little doubt that the excavations described by Sir 
Richard Colt Hoare are the floors of dwellings, the super- 
structure of which consisted of perishable materials, and we 
should be justified in considering them as the remains of the 
villages occupied by the pastoral and agricultural population 
during the Roman occupation of the island. What he calls 
British pottery was no doubt the commoner and rougher descrip- 
tion of Roman ware; and the coins, which he could not appropriate, 
seem to have been the small rude Roman coins, or possibly the 



90 THE BRITONS. [chap. ii. 

imitations of the Koman money made after the Saxon invasion. 
This may be remarked as a very curious circumstance, because, 
though it has nothing to do with the antiquities of the British 
period, it seems to show, that in some parts of the island, even in 
the country villages, the Saxons succeeded peaceably to the Romans, 
or rather, perhaps, that the peasantry were not driven from their 
habitations. In other parts of the country, we have not always 
the same certain indications of the people who inhabited the 
settlements indicated by their excavations, as were found in 
Wiltshire, and in some places perhaps they only mark the sites of 
villages of a much later date, destroyed amid the turbulence 
of the middle ages.* 

We rind the habitations of the early inhabitants of these islands 
under circumstances which seem to denote a still lower scale of 
civilisation. These are the caves on the sea coast, such as Kent's 
Hole, near Torquay, in Devonshire, and other caves on that and 
the Cornish coast, which interest the geologist as well as the 
antiquary. The cave just mentioned was explored by a local 
geologist, who has given the following account of the appearances 
which presented themselves when it was first examined : " The 
floor of the entrance, except that it had the appearance of being 
broken up, offered nothing remarkable to detain us. We shall 

* A careful antiquary makes the following remarks, in the Leicester Chronicle, 
on the " Deserted Villages" of Leicestershire : — " On the north-eastern side of the 
county of Leicester may be found, apart from human habitations, sites of ancient 
villages, of which not a fragment is now visible above ground. One of these lies 
near Ingarsby, a second near Cold Newton, and a third near Humberstone. An 
ordinary passer-by would not notice these curious sites, and the peasant may 
daily pass over their broken surfaces without experiencing any emotion of curiosity 
or interest ; but it is not so with the intelligent man and the reader of history. In 
their minds these spots excite inquiry and reflection. They know that the face of 
the country has witnessed many a 'bloody broil,' and that populous hamlets have 
been razed to the ground in the times of civil war or feudal contest. One of the 
sites well calculated to elicit observation lies, as we have hinted, near to Humber- 
stone. About two miles to the north-east of it, midway between Barkby and 
Scraptoft, may be found a. field presenting numerous irregularities of surface, which 
is known as the ' Town field.' On paying a visit to this a few days ago, we were 
struck with the evidence it afforded of former occupancy, and of having been covered 
with buildings and fortified works. It slopes in a northerly direction, a brook 
running along the lower ground. On the upper part may be traced very clearly 
three sides of an encamptment or enclosure, defended by a mound and trench. In 
the part bordering on the brook, but higher up in the field, traces of the existence 
of buildings are obvious. There can be little doubt this is the site of the town of 
Hamilton, which is marked in maps as being in this quarter." 



chap, n.] HABITATIONS IN CAVES. 91 

have occasion to return to it presently. Not so the lateral branch 
by which it communicates with the body of the cavern on the 
left. Under a ledge on the left was found the usual sprinkling 
of modern bones, and, in the mould beneath, which had acquired 
the consistence of hard clay, were fragments of pottery, calcined 
bones, charcoal, and ashes ; in the midst of all were dispersed 
arrow-heads of flint and chert. The ashes furnish a large pro- 
portion of the mould. In the same heap were discovered round 
slabs of roofing slate, of a plate-like form, some crushed, others 
entire. The pottery is of the rudest description, made of coarse 
gritty earth, not turned on a lathe, and sun-baked; on its external 
margin it bears zigzag indentations, not unlike those represented 
on the urns found by Sir Kichard Colt Hoare in the barrows of 
Wiltshire. These fragments, there seems no reason for doubting, 
are the remains of cinerary urns, which once contained the 
substances scattered around, and to which the slates served for 
covers. At a short distance, nearer the entrance, were found, in 
a continuation of the same mould, articles of bone of three sorts ; 
some of an inch long, and pointed at one end, or arrow-heads ; 
others about three inches long, rounded, slender, and likewise 
pointed. Conjecture was long busy as to their destination. They 
were thought by some to be bodkins, by others, for confining the 
hair, like those ornaments used by the women in Italy ; lastly, 
they were supposed, with more probability, to be a species of pin 
for fastening the skin in front, which served savages for garments. 
The third article does not seem so easy to explain ; it is of a 
different shape, quite flat, broad at one end, pointed at the other ; 
the broad part retains the truncated form of a comb, the teeth of 
which were broken off near their root ; whether it was used for 
a comb, or for making nets for fishing, is not clear. There was 
only this solitary one found, and two of the former, but several of 
the first, with a quantity of bone chips. All three bore marks 
of polish. Nearer the mouth we collected a good number of 
shells of the mussel, limpet, and oyster, with a palate of the 
scarus. This, as well as the nacre of oysters, which was thickly 
disseminated through the mould, served, as they do at the present 
day among the savages, most probably for ornament. The shell- 
fish may have furnished bait for fishing. The presence of these 
rude articles renders it probable that they were collected here by 
the ancient aborigines, who divided their time between the chase 



92 THE BRITONS. [chap. n. 

and fishing in the adjacent sea. Close to the opposite wall, in 
the same passage, buried in black mould, I found a stone hatchet, 
or celt, of sienite, the only one found in the cavern. Another of 
the same material, but of a different shape, I found shortly after, 
not far from tbe cavern, near Anstis Cove, which labourers 
engaged in making the new cut had just thrown up with the 
mould. As we advanced towards the second mouth, on the same 
level, were found, though sparingly, pieces of pottery. The most 
remarkable product of this gallery were round pieces of blue slate, 
about an inch and a half in diameter, and a quarter thick. In the 
same quarter were likewise found several round pieces of sandstone 
grit, about the form and size of a dollar, but thicker and rounder 
at the edge, and in the centre pierced with a hole, by means of 
which they seem to have been strung together like beads. 
Clusters of small pipes or icicles of spar, such as depended from 
the roof at our first visit, we saw collected here in heaps, buried 
in the mud. Similar collections we had occasion to observe 
accompanied by charcoal, throughout the entire range of the 
cavern, sometimes in pits excavated in the stalagmite. Copper 
ore, with these various articles in the same stuff, was picked up ; 
a lump much oxydised, which the late Mr. Phillips analysed, was 
found to be pure virgin ore. 

" Having taken a general survey of the surface of the floor we 
returned to the point from which we set out, viz., the common 
passage, for the purpose of piercing into the materials below the 
mould. Here, in sinking a foot into the soil, (for of stalagmite 
there remained only the broken edges adhering to the sides of 
the passage, and which appeared to be repeated at intervals), we 
came upon flints in all forms, confusedly disseminated through 
the earth, and intermixed with fossil and human bones, the whole 
slightly agglutinated together by calcareous matter derived from 
the roof. My collection possesses an example of this aggregation 
in a mass, consisting of pebbles, clay, and bone, in the midst of 
which is imbedded a fine blade of flint, all united together by 
sparry cement. The flints were in all conditions, from the 
rounded pebble as it came out of the chalk, to the instruments 
fabricated from them, as arrow and spear-heads, and hatchets. 
Some of the flint blocks were chipped only on one side, such as 
had probably furnished the axes ; others on several faces, pre- 
senting planes corresponding exactly to the long blades found by 



chap, n.] HABITATIONS IN CAVES. 93 

their side, and from which they had been evidently sliced off; other 
pebbles still more angular and chipped at all points, were no doubt 
those which yielded the small arrow-heads. Tbese abounded in 
by far the greatest number. Small irregular splinters, not 
referable to any of the above divisions, and which seem to have been 
struck off in the operation of detaching the latter, not unlike the 
small chips in a sculptor's shop, were thickly scattered throughout 
the stuff, indicating that this spot was the workshop where the 
savage prepared his weapons of the chase. . . . With the ex- 
ception of a boar-spear (of iron) and a blade of the same metal not 
far from it, very much rusted, all the articles in the mould or in 
the disturbed soil consisted of flint, chert, sienite, and bone." # 

These caves, like the remains of the villages already described, 
were probably inhabited in the times of the Roman rule, but by 
that portion of the population who lived by fishing. We need only 
look to the condition of the fishers and wreckers on the wilder 
parts of the Cornish coast not a hundred years ago, to form a 
notion of what must have been the savage mode of life of a similar 
class in the same localities long after the Roman occupation. 
Caves of a very similar character have been discovered more 
recently in King's Scar, near Settle, in Yorkshire,! in which the 
remains are mostly Roman, and they were here mixed with coins, 
some of which were Roman, while the greater proportion belonged 
to that class of rude copies of Roman coins, struck when the 
island was losing its dependence on Rome. The fisher population 
is thus traced in these rude habitations, uninterrupted in their 
vocation, and probably unchanged in their condition and manners, 
through the revolutions of empires. 

* " Cavern Researches ; or, Discoveries of Organic Remains, and of British 
and Roman Reliques, in the Caves of Kent's Hole, Anstis Cove, &c. By the 
Rev. J. MacEnery. 

*T A description of these singular caves, with a numher of engravings, will he 
found in Mr. Roach Smith's " Collectanea Antiqua," vol. i., p. 69, 



THE ROMANS. [chap. hi. 



CHAPTER III. 

Britain at the Beginning of the Second Century — Towns enumerated by Ptolemy 
— Hadrian — The Wall — Lollius Urbicus ; the Wall of Antoninus — Rebellion 
of the Soldiery in Britain — Albinus contends for the Purple — Campaigns of 
Severus, who dies at Eburacum ( York) — The Caledonians — Carausius usurps 
the Purple — Allectus — Britain restored to the Empire by Constantius — Con- 
stantine the Great — Revolt of Magnentius — The Picts and Scots. 

Before the end of the first century, Britain was reduced to a 
Roman province ; it began to receive an influx of population from 
foreign lands, and there appears to have been a frequent and 
general intercourse between this island and Eome. Its exports, 
and even its peculiarities, were already well known in Italy. The 
oysters of Rutupise {TLicliborough) were favourites at the tables 
of the rich — 

— Rutupinove edita fundo 

Ostrea ; 

and the whales which were seen in the British seas were proverbial 
for their magnitude — - 

Quanto delphinis balsena Britannica major. 

The same poet, Juvenal, tells us that the learning and eloquence 
of Greece and Rome had established themselves in the far west — 

Nunc totus Graias nostrasque habet orbis Athenas ; 
Gallia causidicos docuit facunda Britannos ; 
De conducendo loquitur jam rhetore Thule. 

A boast of his contemporary, Martial, leaves no doubt of the 
rapid progress which civilisation had made in this land after the 
Boman legions had taken possession of it — 

Dicitur et nostros cantare Britannia versus. 

Indeed, various circumstances in subsequent history show that 



chap, in.] EARLIER ROMAN TOWNS. 95 

whatever was new at Rome was quickly communicated to this 
distant province of the empire. 

The Roman troops had now, indeed, been long engaged in 
building towns and in making roads ; and under their influence 
the face of the country was undergoing a rapid and extraordinary 
change. We have seen that, after some of the British chiefs 
entered into relations with the Romans, a town or two were built, 
such as Verulamium and Camulodunum, in imitation, probably, 
of those on the Continent, and differing entirely from what had 
been called towns in the time of Caesar. We have no means of 
ascertaining how many such towns were built, and it is by an 
assumption without authority that writers have been accustomed 
to say that this or that Roman town was built on the site of a 
previous town of the Britons. But under the influence of Roman 
manners and refinements, cities and towns soon rose up on all 
.sides, and were joined together by an immense system of military 
and other roads. The first indication of these towns on any 
considerable extent is found in the pages of Ptolemy, who has 
merely enumerated those which were then of most account. We 
find that when he wrote, (about a.d. 120), Rutupiae was already 
the principal port of Kent, and the usual point of debarkation for 
visitors from the Continent, Not very far from it was another 
principal town of Kent, called Darvernum (Aapovepvov), no doubt 
a corruption of Durovernum (Canterbury). Londinium, which 
Ptolemy places in Cantium, was already, in the time of Tacitus, 
known as a great trading town. Within the district of the Regni 
of Surrey was Noviomagus, which seems to have stood in the 
neighbourhood of Bromley, on the borders of Kent. In the 
ancient district of the Belgae were three important towns, Yenta 
(Winchester), Aquae Calidae (Bath), and Ischalis (Ilchester). The 
small district of the Durotriges, in Dorset, possessed but one 
town which Ptolemy thought worthy of notice, and of that his 
copyists seem to have corrupted the name ; for it is probable that 
what he calls Dunium, was the same place called by later 
writers Durnovaria (Dorchester). Further west, in the territory 
of the Dumnonii, four towns are enumerated, one of which, Isca, 
is known to have occupied the site of the present Exeter, but the 
other three, Yoliba, Uzela or Uxela, and Tamare, are less certain, 
though they are supposed to have stood respectively, the first on 
the river Fowey, the second in the neighbourhood of Bridgewater, 



THE KOMANS. [chap. in. 



and the third on the Tamar. The two districts to the north of 
the Belgaa, those of the Attrebates and the Dobuni, had each an 
important city, the first called Caleva (Silchester), the other, 
Corinium (Cirencester). 

North of the Thames were the towns of Camulodunum (Col- 
chester), in Essex, and another Venta (Caistor), in the country of 
the Iceni, in Norfolk. More westward lay Verulamium (St. Albans), 
and, to the north of this town, another called Salinae (^aXrjvat), 
the site of which is doubtful, though it seems to be placed in the 
south of Lincolnshire. In the country of the Coritavi were 
Lindum (Lincoln), and Ragse, or, according to the more correct 
reading, Ratae (Leicester). In the small coast district to the north 
of the Humber, which had been the territory of the Parisii, there 
was a town called by Ptolemy, Petuaria, the site of which is 
not certain. Some of the most important Roman towns in the 
island were now scattered over the once wild haunts of the 
fierce Brigantes. First of these was Eburacum^ToWc), the 
head quarters of the sixth legion. The others were Isurium 
(Aldborongh), Caturactonium (Catteric), Olicana (Llkley), all in 
Yorkshire ; Galagum or Galacum, an uncertain site, but supposed 
to be near Kendal, in Westmoreland ; Epiacum (Lanchester), in 
Durham, Vinnovium (Binchester), in the same county, Rigo- 
dunum, believed to be the place subsequently called Coccium 
(Ribchester), inLancashire, and Camunlodunum, or, as later writers 
call it, Cambodunum (Slack), in Yorkshire. Deva, the garrison 
of the twentieth legion, occupied the site of the present city of 
Chester. Below it stood Viroconium or Uriconium (JVroxeter), 
in Shropshire; Brannogenium (Leintwardine), on the northern 
borders of Herefordshire ; and, more westwardly, Mediolanium, 
a town on the banks of the Tanad, in North Wales. Far down 
in the western part of Wales, in a part of Cardiganshire still 
rich in antiquities, was a town named Luentinum (Llanio) ; 
further south was Maridunum (Caermarthen) ; and eastward again, 
in the borders of the Silures, was Bullasum, supposed to be the 
same town which is mentioned at a later period under the name 
of Burrium (Usk). By confounding two names, Ptolemy has 
omitted the Silurian Isca (Caerleon), which was the head-quarters 
of the second legion. 

Since the campaigns of Agricola, the conquerors had covered 
the lowlands of Scotland, up to the borders of the great 



chap. m.J THE EOMAN LEGIONS. 97 

Caledonian forest, with an extraordinary number of towns and 
stations on the sites of most of which the spade still brings to 
light traces of Roman civilisation. Ptolemy enumerates no less 
than twenty towns (iroAeis) to the north of the Brigantes, the 
names of which were Lucopibia (Whithern), and Retigonium 
(Stranraer), in the district of the Novantse, on the extreme coasts 
of Galloway ; Carbantorigum (Kirkcudbright), Uxelum, Corda, and 
Trimontium, the three last of uncertain site, but believed to have 
ranged across the district north of the head of the Solway Firth, as 
they were in the district of the Selgovae. The first two have been 
supposed by some to be represented by entrenchments found at 
Raeburnfoot, in Eskdale, and Birrenswork Hill, in Annandale. The 
Roman Trimontium is supposed to be Eildon, in Lauderdale. The 
Roman towns in the extensive district of the Damnii, who occupied 
the larger portion of the low lands, were Colania (Carstairs), 
Vanduara (Paisley), Coria (uncertain), Alauna (Kier), Lindum 
(Ardoch), and Victoria (Bealgin Ross). In the district of the 
Otadeni were built Curia (Currie), and Bremenium (Rochester) ; 
in that of the Vacomagi, bordering on the district of the Cale- 
donians, Banatia (Bonness), Tamia (Braemar Castle), Pteroton 
Castrum (Burghhead), and Tuesis, a town on the Spey, perhaps 
at Cromdale ; in that of the Venicontes, Orrea (Bertha, at the 
head of the Tay) ; and among the Texali, Devana (Old Aberdeen). 
The strength which was thus permanently established in the 
north shows us to what a state of dependence the Romans had 
now reduced all the southern parts of the island. Further 
evidence of this is seen in the distribution of the Roman legions, 
which had now been placed in the permanent quarters which they 
held until nearly the moment of their final withdrawal. The 
fourteenth legion, the one which had crushed the insurrection 
of Boadicea, had been drawn from Britain by Vitellius in the 
year 70, and had never returned. Several of the others had left 
at a still earlier period. Four only remained — the second, sixth, 
niuth, and twentieth. Of these, the second was posted at Isca 
(Caerleon), and the twentieth at Deva (Chester), whence they held 
in restraint the mountaineers of Wales, and of Cumberland and 
Westmoreland, the retreat of such of the Brigantes as still 
retained their wild independence, and protected the country from 
the Irish pirates, who landed usually in the Severn and the Dee. 
The sixth legion was established at York, from which it could be 



THE ROMANS. [chap, in. 



marched quickly into Scotland. After the last campaign of 
Agricola, the ninth legion suddenly disappears, and is no more 
heard of in history ; but as we find it commemorated in inscrip- 
tions found at York, it is supposed to have been combined with, 
or incorporated into, the sixth. The north of England and the 
lowlands of Scotland were thickly covered with posts of auxiliaries ; 
and we trace other bodies of auxiliaries scattered in the towns of 
the south, but not in such numbers as to lead us to believe that 
they were placed there as a curb on the population. 

The Roman writers have, unfortunately, left us very few 
notices of the internal affairs of our island after it was reduced to 
a province ; and for many years subsequent to the departure of 
Agricola, Britain is hardly noticed. We are, probably, to suppose 
from this that it remained without any serious disturbances, and 
that the progress of Romanising and civilising went on without 
interruption. We do not even know who succeeded Agricola in 
the proprsetorship, and we only learn incidentally that the 
governor of this province, towards the end of the reign of 
Domitian, was an officer named Sallustius Lucullus, whom that 
tyrant caused to be put to death for having allowed a new-formed 
spear he had invented to be called, after his own name, Lucullian. 
But the frequent weakness of the central power, and the various 
struggles for the empire, gradually discouraged the distant pro- 
vinces, and threw them into disorder. This was especially the 
case in Britain. During the reduction and conquest of the low- 
land tribes, the fierce Caledonians had risen into so much im- 
portance, that their name began not only to be used for the col- 
lective tribes to the north of the Brigantes, but it was adopted 
very often as a common term for the Britons in general — that is, 
for all those who had not acknowledged themselves Roman sub- 
jects. They probably carried on the same plan of warfare which 
was continued by their descendants to a comparatively recent 
period. Rushing unexpectedly from their strongholds in the 
mountains and forests, they swept over the open country, plun- 
dered, slaughtered, and burnt, and disappeared with their booty, 
before a sufficient force could be brought together to encounter 
them. In such warfare, wild tribes, who used to move about 
rapidly, with no permanent residences or possessions, had great 
advantages over a rich and civilised country, which it required 
a steady government and active and skilful commanders to 



chap, in.] HADEIAN'S WALL. 99 

protect. These seem to Lave been wanting during that period 
which preceded the accession of Hadrian, and it is probable that 
the successes of the Caledonians had encouraged some other 
British tribes to revolt. The emperor Hadrian visited Britain 
in person, in the year 120, and he is said to have found many 
things that required reformation. We have no account of his 
proceedings, but it appears that he restored the island to 
order, and that he drove back the Caledonians into their fast- 
nesses. We are justified in believing that he marched in person 
into the northern wilds, from the satirical verses of a contemporary 
poet,* and we learn from direct testimony that he caused that 
formidable barrier to be built across the island from the Solway 
to the Tyne, of which we still trace the stupendous remains. 
A massive wall, nearly seventy miles in extent, extending over 
plain and mountain, from Bowness on the Solway Firth to the 
now celebrated locality of Wall's-End on the Tyne, accompanied 
on its southern side by an earthen vallum and a deep ditch, and 
fortified with a formidable series of twenty-three stationary towns, 
with intermediate mile-castles, and watchtowers. It has been the 
custom to consider the wall only as the structure raised by Hadrian, 
while the earthen vallum or rampart was ascribed to Severus ; 
but I entirely agree with Mr. Collingwood Bruce, who has recently 
published a most interesting volume on " The Roman Wall," that 
both are parts of one work, erected by the former emperor. 

This immense work seems to have been part of a system of 
circumvallation adopted by the emperor Hadrian, for it appears 
that remains of similar walls are found on the distant frontiers in 
Germany. I suspect it has been rather hastily supposed that it 
implies that this emperor relinquished the territory between 
it and the more northerly line of forts erected by Agricola ; 
for the towns and forts to the north of the wall seem still to 

* The historian Spartianus has preserved the epigram written on Hadrian by the 
poet Florus, as well as the emperor's reply. The first was contained in the three 
lines : — 

Ego nolo Cassar esse, 

Ambulare per Britannos, 

Scythicas pati pruinas. 
To which the emperor replied as follows : — 

Ego nolo Florus esse, 

Ambulare per tabernas, 

Latitare per popinas, 

Calices pati rotundos. 

h2 



100 THE ROMANS. [chap. hi. 

have been kept up, and to have been continued till the decline 
of the empire. Perhaps it was intended to protect the richer 
and more highly cultivated country to the south of the " lower 
isthmus " from the sudden and destructive inroads to which it 
had previously been exposed. We know from the history of the 
border, at a later period, how far, without a barrier of this kind, 
the ravages of the Scots might be carried, and what damage might 
be effected before a sufficient force could be gathered on any 
particular point to drive them back. 

The expedition of Hadrian seems to have been followed by a 
period of profound tranquillity,*" and we learn from the historian 
Xiphilinus, that, about twelve years afterwards, the propraetor, or, 
as he was then called, the legate of Britain, named Julius 
Sever us, was able to carry away some of his best officers and 
troops to assist in the war against the revolted Jews. The name 
of another proprsetor under Hadrian, perhaps the successor of 
Julius Severus, Priscus Licinius, has been found in inscriptions, 
but nothing further is known of him. 

Hadrian was succeeded, in the year 138, by the emperor 
Antoninus Pius. His propraetor in Britain, Lollius Urbicus, was 
a man of energy and talent, which he was soon called to exercise 
in withstanding a new irruption of the northern barbarians. We 
learn, quite incidentally, of an insurrection to the south of 
Hadrian s wall, at this period. f The remains of the Brigantes 
seem to have preserved a precarious independence, perhaps in the 
rugged country extending from the wilds of Lancashire over the 
lake district, in the same manner as wild Irish clans occupied the 
Wicklow mountains for ages after the surrounding plains had 
acknowledged the domination of the Anglo-Normans, and these 
probably imitated the northern Caledonians in making occasional 
predatory outbreaks. On the present occasion they had attacked 
a small tribe living under Roman subjection, called the Genuni, 
to which they had perhaps been encouraged by the invasion of 
the Caledonians beyond the wall. The Brigantes were quickly 

* The expedition of Hadrian to Britain was commemorated by several coins in 
large and middle brass, which are interesting, because some of them give on the 
reverse a figure seated with a spear and shield, which, as it is surrounded by 
the word Britannia, is supposed to have been intended for a personification of 
Britain. These coins, especially the large brass, are rare. 

| •+ This insurrection and destruction of the Brigantes is mentioned by Pausanias, 
Arcad. lib. viii. cap. 43. 



chap, m.] THE WALL OF ANTONINUS. 101 

overwhelmed, and we are told that the greater part of the tribe 
was destroyed. The Roman arms were equally successful against 
the Caledonians, who were driven into their mountains, and 
Lollius Urbicus caused a new barrier to be raised for their 
restraint. We have seen how, when Agricola had reduced the 
lowland districts to subjection, he erected a line of forts across 
what has been termed the upper isthmus, from the Forth to the 
Clyde. Lollius Urbicus raised, on the same site, a new line of 
forts, and joined them together by an immense continuous ram- 
part of earth and turf, which, from the name of the emperor 
under whom it was built, is usually called the wall of Antoninus. 
It is now called popularly Graham's Dike, and along its course 
are frequently found inscribed tablets commemorating the portion 
built by the different troops and cohorts of the Roman army.* 
We learn from these inscriptions that, besides the numerous 
bodies of foreign auxiliaries which were permanently stationed in 
the north, the three legions in Britain, the second, the sixth, and 
the twentieth, were all drawn from their quarters to take part in 
the campaign of Lollius Urbicus. His successes threw splendour 
on the reign of Antoninus, and coins were struck bearing on the 
reverse a figure of victory surrounded by the letters of the word 

BRITANNIA. 

In spite of the energetic measures of Urbicus, the Caledonians 
soon reappeared in arms, and the circumstance that they seem 
almost always to have risen. on the death of the emperor, shows 
that the barbarians must have had intelligence among their 
enemies. They calculated, no doubt, that, amid the hesitating 
inactivity which naturally followed such an event, they might make 
an extensive raid with less danger of interruption. The Roman 
province was thus invaded on the accession of Marcus Aurelius, in 
161, but the invaders were checked by a new propraetor, Aufidius 
Victorinus. An invasion of a still more formidable character 
followed the accession of Commodus ; a Roman commander, who 

* The following, from a richly sculptured stone found at West Kilpatrick, is the 
usual formula of these inscriptions : — 

IMP. C. T. AE. HADRIANO ANT0NIN0 AUG. PIO P.P. VEX. LEG. XX. V. V. 
F. P. P. Ell CDXI. 

To the emperor Ccesar Titus JElius Hadrianus Antoninus Augustus Pius, the 
father of his country. A vexillation of the twentieth legion, (surnamed) the 
valiant and victorious, executed four thousand four hundred and eleven spaces. 



102 THE ROMANS. [chap, m 

attempted to arrest their progress, was killed, and his army cut to 
pieces ; and the emperor was obliged to send an officer who was 
remarkable for his extraordinary perseverance and capability of 
sustaining the hardships of war, named Ulpius Marcellus, to sup- 
port the authority of Rome in this distant province. From this 
man the Caledonians met with terrible reverses, and the island 
was again restored to peace. Ulpius Marcellus was, however, 
soon recalled, for, in the eyes of a tyrant like Commodus, merit 
itself was a crime. His departure was followed by a mutiny 
among the troops in Britain, arising from dissatisfaction at the 
proceedings of the imperial favourite Perennis, who displaced the 
men of senatorial rank from the commands which they had always 
held, and appointed in their stead younger men taken from the 
equestrian order. The officers in Britain met and consulted, and 
they finally sent an armed deputation of fifteen hundred men to 
lay their grievances at the foot of the throne. When they arrived 
at the gates of Rome, Commodus went out to meet them, and, 
aware that there was discontent among his other troops, and that 
it might be dangerous to provoke them, he abandoned his 
minister to his accusers, and they put him to death. Still the 
troops in Britain remained unsatisfied, and the mutiny continued, 
on which Publius Helvius Pertinax, a commander of great military 
talent, was sent to appease them ; but instead of returning to their 
obedience, they disclaimed the authority of Commodus, and in- 
vited their new commander to be their emperor. This he 
prudently declined, and he succeeded in restoring order in the 
province, though not without considerable personal risk, for, in 
opposing himself to the fury of one of the mutinous legions, he 
was struck down, and left for dead. 

At length Pertinax obtained his recall, and was succeeded in the 
proprsetorship by Decimus Clodius Albinus, This governor soon 
made himself popular in his government, especially among the 
troops, and he seems even to have retained the favour of the 
emperor Commodus, who conferred upon him the title of Csesar. 
At length an unfortunate accident had nearly proved his ruin. 
It was reported that Commodus was dead, and this rumour quickly 
reaching Britain, Albinus assembled his troops, and addressed 
them on the event. He used some expressions in his speech 
which, being repeated, before the emperor, gave so much dis- 
pleasure, that an order was immediately dispatched for the recall 



chap, m.] THE EaTPEROR SEVERUS. 103 

of the propraetor, and a creature of Cornmodus, named Junius 
Severus, was appointed to succeed him. But the murder of 
Cornmodus, before the order could be carried into execution, 
saved Albinus for a more glorious, if not for a happier fate. 

The imperial throne was now occupied for a moment by the 
same Pertinax who had preceded Albinus in the government of 
Britain. He was raised to the purple by the praetorian guards, 
who, three months after, rebelled and cut off his head, and then 
offered the empire for sale. The disgraceful purchase was made 
by a rich but worthless merchant, named Didius Julianus. Three 
commanders, in different parts of the empire, stepped forward at 
this moment to resist the tyranny of the praetorian soldiery, and 
expel the emperor of their choice ; these were, Severus in 
Pannonia, Pescennius Niger in Syria, and Albinus in Britain. 
Severus, with his characteristic activity, was the first in the field, 
and, marching upon Borne, put to death the usurper, degraded 
the praetorian guards from their privileges, and assumed the 
purple. Severus was a man possessing extraordinary talents for 
empire, indefatigable in pursuing the object of his ambition, un- 
scrupulous in attaining the object of it, and merciless towards 
those who stood in his way. He had gained possession of the 
empire, but he had still two competitors in the field, against 
whose united forces he would perhaps have been unable to struggle. 
It was his policy therefore to separate his rivals, and while he 
prepared to march against Niger, he pacified Albinus with profes- 
sions of the warmest friendship, conferred upon him the title of 
Caesar, and, making him nominally his associate in the empire, 
caused money to be coined in his name, and statues to be erected 
in his honour. Albinus thus gained over, Severus proceeded to 
the east to encounter Pescennius Niger. 

This occurred in the year 193. Niger was defeated in battle 
near Antioch, and slain, and after a protracted struggle, Severus 
returned victorious to Borne in 196, and prepared to rid himself 
of his other rival Albinus. The governor of Britain was a formi- 
dable antagonist ; he also was a man of great military talents ; he 
was popular in his province as well as in Gaul, and he was closely 
allied by blood and friendship with some of the greatest and 
oldest families in Borne. He was ambitious, too, and, though his 
vanity had been flattered by the honours showered on him by 
Severus, he seems to have let it be known that he was not yet 



104 THE BOMANS. [chap, nx 

satisfied, and that he aimed at securing for himself the imperial 
dignity. We are told that, during the absence of Severus in the 
east, Albinus had been invited to Rome to assume the purple, 
and that it was the knowledge of these intrigues which determined 
the emperor Severus to destroy him. This was not, however, an 
easy task. It is evident that the Roman province of Britain had 
become at this time extremely populous, and rich. Multitudes 
of auxiliary troop3 had been gradually transplanted into it, and 
had no doubt taken with them or been followed by colonies of 
their countrymen. Merchants, tradesmen, artisans, even probably 
artists, and men of letters, had sought their fortune where the 
increase of commerce and civilisation opened a field for their 
exertions. The strength of the native Britons had been drawn 
off to serve in foreign countries ;* and that part of the original 
population which remained at home had probably been greatly 
diminished in numbers, and reduced to the condition of serfs. In 
fact, from this time forward, when the Roman writers speak of 
the Britons existing in the island as a people, they included under 
that name only the Caledonian tribes of the north. Britain was 
thus looked upon as one of the most powerful and important 
provinces of the empire ; and its propraetor, surrounded by troops 
devoted to his person, with a population which seems to have been 
always ambitious of an independent emperor of its own, might 
easily set the court of Rome at defiance. Severus, therefore, 
aware of all these circumstances, determined to destroy his oppo- 
nent by treachery, and he wrote him a letter in terms of the most 
affectionate friendship, which was entrusted to messengers in 

* It was the constant policy of the Romans to draught off the rising population 
of the conquered provinces, and send them to occupy stations, and, in fact, to form 
colonies in other countries. It was, indeed, the most effectual manner of destroy- 
ing the nationality of the people they had subjected to their power; for, holding 
no natural sympathy with the land in which they were settled, and regarded only 
as Roman soldiers, they gradually came to consider themselves as a part of Rome. 
We find, mentioned in old writers and in inscriptions, numerous alee and cohorts 
of Britons in various parts of the Roman empire. According to the Notitia, the 
fourth ala of Britons was stationed in Egypt. The twenty-sixth cohort of Britons 
occurs in Armenia. A body of the " Invincible Younger Britons " were stationed 
in Spain ; and one of the " Elder Britons " in Illyricum. The " Younger British 
Slingers {exculcatoresy are found among the Palatine auxiliaries. Other bodies of 
Britons are found in Gaul, Italy, and other countries. Britons of the tribe of the 
Horesti (in Scotland) have been traced by Mr. Roach Smith on the banks of the 
Rhine. See his u Collectanea Antiqua, 1 ' vol. ii. p. 134. 



chap, iil] DEATH OF ALBINUS. 105 

whom he could confide for the execution of his secret orders. 
These were, that they should endeavour to obtain a private inter- 
view with Albinus, and if they succeeded they were instantly to 
slay him ; if they were not admitted to a private interview, they 
were to insinuate themselves among his cooks and with the ser- 
vants who waited at his table, and by bribing them, convey a deadly 
poison which the emperor had given them for that purpose into 
his food. It happened that Albinus and his officers were well 
aware of the treacherous character of Severus, and that they 
were on their guard. His messengers were no sooner arrived in 
Britain, than they were seized, and so strictly examined, that 
they made a full confession. They were at once ordered for 
execution, and Albinus, conscious that now his only chance of 
safety was immediate action, caused himself to be proclaimed 
emperor, and declared war against Severus. He marched into 
Gaul, and took possession of the city of Lyons, near which was 
fought the decisive battle which secured the empire to Severus, 
and put an end to the ambitious projects of Albinus by his death. 
The power of the province of Britain was exhibited in the 
numerous and excellent army which its governor led into the 
field. The ancient historian from whoni we gain the most 
detailed account of these events, Xiphilinus, estimates his force 
at a hundred and fifty thousand men, part of whom probably were 
Gauls ; and, if we suppose this to be exaggerated, it is certain 
that his soldiers were sufficiently numerous and brave, to leave 
the event long doubtful in a contest with the military force of the 
empire under the command of the emperor himself. 

The great battle of Lyons was fought on the 19th of February* 
197. It appears probable that the victor immediately appointed 
to the government of Britain one of his commanders who had 
served in the campaign against Albinus, named Virius Lupus, 
who perhaps led back the shattered remains of the British legions. 
At all events, we find this officer established there as propraetor 
very soon afterwards. At this period some great change was 
taking place in the population of North Britain, which we have a 
difficulty in explaining, though it is supposed to have arisen from 
a large immigration of foreign tribes, perhaps from the north of 
Europe. The slight notices of events in Britain given by the 
Roman writers throw no light upon the subject, further than 
showing hs that the Caledonian tribes had suddenly become much 



106 THE ROMANS. [chap. hi. 

more numerous and formidable, and that apparently a new tribe 
under the name of Mseatae had established themselves imme- 
diately to the north of the barrier of Antoninus. Dion Cassius, 
the historian of these events, informs us that " the two greatest 
tribes among the Britons are the Caledonii and the Moeataa, for 
even the names of all the other tribes have in a manner merged 
in these two. The Maeatae dwell close to the wall which divides 
the island into two parts, and the Caledonii live beyond them. 
Each of these people inhabit wild mountains, where there is no 
water, and desert plains and marshes, where they live without 
walls or cities ; neither do they practise husbandry, but live by 
pasturage, or the chace, and on berries which grow in the woods ; 
for they never taste fish, although their lakes and rivers furnish 
an inexhaustible supply.* They live in tents, naked and bare- 
footed, having their wives in common, and they rear all the 
children which are born to them. The government of these 
tribes is democratical, and they delight above a]l things in pillage. 
They fight from chariots, which are drawn by small swift horses ; 
they fight also on foot, run with great speed, and are most reso- 
lute when compelled to stand. Their arms consist of a shield 
and a short spear, which has a brazen knob at the extremity of 
the shaft, that when shaken it may terrify the enemy by its 
noise. They use daggers also. They are capable of enduring 
hunger, thirst, and hardships of every description ; for they will 
plunge into the marshes, and remain there several days, with 
only their heads above the water. When they are in the woods 
they subsist on bark and roots; and they prepare for all emer- 
gencies a certain kind of food, of which if they eat only so much 
as the size of a bean, they neither hunger nor thirst." 

Such were the northern tribes, as report, probably applying 
the description of those who were in the lowest state of 
civilisation to the whole, pictured them at Home. We have 
before had occasion to observe that the Caledonians appear to have 
had quick intelligence of the condition of the southern province, 
and they seem, according to the same policy which led their 
descendants at a much more recent period to select the moment 
when the Edwards and Henries were absent in their French 

* It is a curious circumstance, that the probably superstitious aversion to the 
eating of fish was preserved in Scotland to a very recent period ; and I am not 
sure if it does not still to some degree exist in the Highlands. 



chap, in.] THE CALEDONIANS AND MMA.TM. 107 

wars, to make their most formidable inroads into England, to 
have chosen the moment of the insurrection of Albinus and of the 
troubles and weakness which followed, to invade the B,oman 
province. The history of these invasions is extremely obscure. 
It appears to have been the Maeatse who conducted them, and the 
sudden turbulence of this people, their strength and their position, 
certainly give force to the opinion that they were a new colony 
from Scandinavia or from the north of Germany. Virius Lupus 
was at length induced to adopt the dangerous expedient of pur- 
chasing peace with the Mseatae, who received the money, and then, 
entering into an alliance with the Caledonians, renewed their 
hostilites. The propraetor gave them more gold, and they 
remained quiet during two years, and then in conjunction with 
their allies recommenced their predatory excursions with more 
ferocity than ever. At length, in the year 208, Virius Lupus 
was so much embarrassed by the attacks of these northern enemies, 
that he sent an urgent message to the emperor Severus, praying 
for a considerable reinforcement of troops, and representing the 
advantage which would arise from the presence of the emperor 
himself. 

Severus had found little happiness in the gratification of his 
ambition ; the severity of his rule on one hand, and the weak 
indulgence he showed towards his own family, had raised him 
troubles both abroad, where he was annoyed by frequent insurrec- 
tions, and in his own household, where his domestic hours were 
embittered by the undutiful and even cruel conduct of his sons Cara- 
calla and Geta. He was not unwilling, therefore, to change his 
domestic torments even for the hardships of a campaign in the incle- 
ment north, although age, now advancing upon him, was rendered 
more burthensome by the attacks of a cruel disease. When the letter 
of Virius Lupus arrived, announcing that the Roman province 
was overrun by the northern plunderers, the sound of war seemed 
to stir up the spirit of the old veteran, as if he had suddenly 
recovered his youthful energies. He instantly assembled his 
army and placed himself at its head, and, ordering his sons to 
accompany him, he made a forced march through Gaul, stopping 
nowhere, although the painful disease of his joints, with which he 
was habitually afflicted, was at this time so severe, that he was 
obliged to be carried on a litter. He thus reached the shores of 
Britain in an incredibly short space of time. It was late in the 



108 THE ROMANS. [chap. in. 

year 208, yet, without a moment's delay, be drew together the 
armies from different parts, and, with those he had brought with 
him, concentrated a vast force, and marched at once to meet the 
enemy. The latter were astonished at the rapidity of his move- 
ments, and quickly ceasing their hostilities, they sent envoys, who 
met him perhaps at Eburacum (York), begging for peace, and 
offering to make amends for their previous offences. But Severus 
had come too far to be so easily satisfied, and he was resolved to 
deprive them of the power of further hostility. He detained their 
ambassadors for some time, and then sent them away without any 
answer to their demands. 

The emperor established his court at Eburacum, the second city 
of the island, and the station of the sixth legion. He then made 
extensive preparations for the war, and at the beginning of the 
year 209 he put his forces in motion. He found it necessary to 
separate his two sons, who not only treated their father with 
insolent disrespect, but quarrelled with each other. Geta was left 
to command the southern province, assisted with a council of the 
oldest and most experienced of the emperor's friends, while Cara- 
calla accompanied him into the wilds of Caledonia. They had no 
sooner passed the boundary formed by the Forth and Clyde, and 
the wall of Antoninus, (ra TrpofiefiXriixzva pevfiard re koX y&iAara 
Trjs c PcojucuW apxjjs), than they were involved in daily skirmishes 
with the barbarians, who only showed themselves in small bodies, 
and manifested a resolution to avoid a general engagement. The 
Eomans had to undergo extraordinary hardships, for as they drove 
the enemy before them they were obliged to force their way 
through thick forests and immense morasses, with a climate to the 
asperity of which they were unaccustomed. But everything 
seemed to yield to the stern will of their extraordinary leader, who, 
in the midst of the most incredible difficulties and hardships, 
caused bridges and roads to be thrown over the marshy places, 
actually filling some of them up, so as to give his troops a solid 
footing ; while he cut down forests, and made roads over the 
mountains. In the course of these labours the Roman soldiers 
frequently fell into ambuscades of the natives, who exposed sheep 
and oxen a little way out of the line of their march, and then fell 
upon them suddenly when they went to carry away the booty. 
So certain were they that all stragglers would be killed without 
mercy, and probably subjected to horrible indignities, that when- 



chap, in.] CAMPAIGN OF SEVERUS. 109 

ever a soldier was rendered unable to keep up with the march of 
his comrades, we are told that they put him to death, rather than 
let him fall alive into the hands of their enemies. We are 
assured by the old writers, that the Komans lost not less 
than fifty thousand men in this invasion. Yet neither marsh 
nor forest, rain nor storm, of which there seems to have been 
no lack, averted the inflexible will of the aged emperor, who, 
sometimes on horseback, but more frequently stretched on his 
litter, which he was not able to leave for days together, continued 
to advance until he reached the extreme northern coast of Britain. 
He there observed the parallax of the sun, and the comparative 
length of the days and nights, and he ascertained beyond a doubt 
that Britain was an island. Severus was now willing to treat 
with the Caledonians, against whom his operations had often been 
hindered and embarrassed by the unfilial behaviour of Caracalla. 
At times when the old man was unable to leave his bed, he tried 
to persuade his son to take the command of the troops, and march 
against the barbarians. But Caracalla only occupied himself in 
corrupting the soldiers, in order that, in case of his father's death, 
he might use them against his brother Geta, and obtain the 
empire entirely for himself. He was even impatient of the 
lingering duration of his father's life, and is said to have 
attempted to bribe his physicians and servants to hasten his death. 
When he found the old king's attendants too faithful to listen to 
his proposals, he resolved to slay him himself. One day Severus, 
having had the soles of his feet punctured, had thus obtained so 
much relief from his complaint, that he was enabled to ride on 
horseback. He left the camp with his son and a detachment of 
his forces, to receive a surrender of arms from the Caledonians, 
and to confer with them on terms of peace. The emperor rode 
forward towards the enemy, with his son behind him, and the 
troops following in the rear. At this moment Caracalla suddenly 
checked his horse, and, drawing his sword, prepared to stab his 
father in the back ; but the troops, who saw the treacherous 
movement, set up a shout, which made the emperor turn 
round, and thus saved his life. Severus had seen the drawn 
sword, but, without appearing to take any further notice, he 
proceeded in his negotiation with the Caledonians. When this 
was concluded, he retired to his tent, and sending for his son, 
reproached him with his murderous intentions in the presence of 



110 THE ROMANS. [chap. hi. 

two of his confidential friends, Papinian, the celebrated lawyer, 
and Castor. Provoked at the conduct of his children, Severus 
hastened the treaty with the Caledonians, and it was agreed that 
they should give up a considerable portion of their territory to 
the Romans, on condition that he should retire with his army into 
the Roman province. He accordingly returned to York, it is 
supposed towards the end of the year 209. It has been popularly 
supposed that the following year was employed in the construction 
of that immense line of fortification which recent examinations 
and a careful consideration of ancient testimonies have left little 
doubt was the sole work of the emperor Hadrian. It is not, 
indeed, probable that, after having added to the Roman territory 
towards the north, a man like Severus would raise a barrier on 
the limits to which the Roman power had been confined, when 
almost at its lowest ebb.* 

It is possible, however, that Severus may have repaired the 
wall, and it seems that, during his stay at Eburacum, he not unfre- 
quently visited its towns and garrisons. We are told that on one 
of these visits to the wall, he was returning to the nearest station, 
(niansio), when he was accosted by an " Ethiopian " soldier, 
celebrated among his comrades for his wit,f who bore a crown of 
cypress, and who, when the emperor seemed offended by what 
he looked upon as an ill omen, addressed him in a tone of vulgar 
adulation, "You have been everything, and conquered everything; 
now then be a god." j Other fatal omens accompanied the em- 
peror's progress, one of which occurred at Eburacum, when on his 
return thither he went to offer sacrifice in the temple of Bellona. 
While he was there, confiding in the solemn promises of the 
northern barbarians to preserve the peace, news suddenly arrived 
that the Mseatee had again united with the Caledonians, and that 
they had recommenced their predatory inroads. The emperor 
was furious at the faithlessness of the barbarians, and raising 

* We owe the account of the Caledonian campaigns of Severus chiefly to the 
historian Herodian, who wrote about thirty years after they took place. Some 
particulars are added by a later writer, Xiphilinus. 

f iEthiops quidam e numero militari, claise inter scurras famse, et celebratorum 
semper jocorum. — JElius Spartianus, de Vit. Sever, c, 22. 

J We have not much difficulty in fixing the scene of this anecdote. A detach- 
ment of Moors was, as we learn from the " Notitia Imperii," stationed at Aballaba 
{Watch-cross ?), which was no doubt the town where the emperor on this 
occasion sought a lodging. 



chap. in. DEATH OF SEVERUS AT YORK. Ill 

himself up, to order his officers to prepare for a new campaign, 
he addressed them in the words of Homer — 

Toov /JL7] tls virempvyoL alirvv okeOpov 

XeTpas & v/JLSTepas' ^5' ovtlvol yaarepi [atjttjp 
Kovpov ioura <p<=poi } ^5' ts (pvyoi alirvi/ o\zdpo:'* 

which is translated by Cowper — 

Die the race ! 
May none escape us ! Neither he who flies 5 
Nor even the infant in the mother's womb 
Unconscious. 

But Severus was sinking rapidly under his bodily infirmities, and 
he was at this moment suffering under so severe an attack of his 
disease, that he was unable to walk or ride. The troops, mur- 
muring at his absence, and agitated by the intrigues of his 
worthless son, saluted Caracalla with the imperial title of 
Augustus- When this was told to Severus, all the energies of 
the warrior were roused, and, causing himself to be placed on 
the tribunal, he commanded the new emperor, Caracalla, with all 
who had joined in the act of insubordination, whether tribunes, 
centurions, or private soldiers, to appear before him. Then sud- 
denly addressing them, he said, " Soldiers, it is not the feet, but 
the head, which discharges the duties of a general ; " and in the 
same breath he gave the order to march against the enemy. 
But the old man's effort was fatal to him. He relapsed into a 
state of helpless weakness, was carried back to his palace, and 
died in Eburacum, or York, on the 4th of February, 211. By 
his will, his two sons, Caracalla and Geta, were to share between 
them his enormous treasures and the Roman empire. 

Caracalla, eager to secure the grand object of his ambition, and 
to possess alone his father's empire and his treasures, seems to 
have kept the real state of the health of Severus from the know- 
ledge of his mother and brother until his death. He then first 
caused to be put to death most of the officers of his father's 
household, and tried to corrupt the army ; but they remained 
faithful, and insisted on acknowledging the two brothers as 
equal, according to their father's will. Failing in his attempt 
upon the soldiery, Caracalla made a hasty peace with the bar- 
barians, and, pretending to acquiesce in the will of Severus, he 
hastened to the south to join his brother and mother. The body 



112 THE ROMANS. [chap. in. 

of the late emperor was consumed on a funeral pile at York, and 
the ashes having been placed in an urn of alabaster, they carried 
it with them to Rome. 

Such were the events which have given a classic celebrity to 
the city of York. A long period passed over, and many emperors 
sat on the throne, before Britain is again mentioned in the 
ancient historians. The government seems to have been carried 
on with a silent tranquillity, which leaves us to suppose that the 
island prospered, and that it was visited by no great dangers or 
troubles to excite attention at Rome. In fact, the next great 
events that we shall have to contemplate are not overwhelming 
attacks of the barbarians, but revolts of the island against the 
imperial government. Two or three inscriptions found in dif- 
ferent parts of England refer distinctly to this period, and as 
they belong principally to dedications and restorations of buildings 
they seem to confirm the supposition that the island remained 
in peace. One of these, raised by the troop of Asturians 
stationed at Cilurnum on the wall [Clusters) relates to the re- 
building of a temple, and shows us not only that in 221, under 
the reign of Heliogabalus, Marius Valerianus was propraetor of 
Britain, but that the troops and people in this distant province 
took so much interest in the revolutions at Rome, that no sooner 
had Heliogabalus been deposed and assassinated, than his name 
was erased from the inscription in this remote and comparatively 
obscure town. Another inscription, found in Cumberland, shows 
that the propraetor of the emperor Gordian, in the year 243, 
was Nonnius Philippus. 

Amid the disorder and anarchy of the reign of Gallienus (260 
to 268), a number of usurpers arose in different parts of the 
empire, who were popularly called the thirty tyrants, of whom 
Lollianus, Victorinus, Postumus, the two Tetrici, and Marius, 
are believed on good grounds to have assumed the sovereignty in 
Britain. Perhaps some of these rose up as rivals at the same 
time, and from the monuments bearing the name of Tetricus, 
found at Bittern, near Southampton, we are perhaps justified in 
supposing that the head quarters of that commander lay at the 
station of Clausen turn and along the neighbouring coasts. We 
have no information of the state of Britain at this time, but 
it must have been profoundly agitated by these conflicting 
claimants to empire. Yet, though so ready to rise in support of 



chap, in.] THE PICTS AND SCOTS. 113 

their own leaders, the troops in Britain seem to have turned a 
deaf ear to all solicitations from without. When an officer in the 
Roman army, named Bonosus, horn in Spain, but descended of 
a family in Britain, proclaimed himself emperor, in the reign of 
Aurelian, and appealed for support to the western provinces, he 
found no sympathy among the British troops. Another usurper, 
whose name has not been recorded, had taken advantage of his 
appointment to the government of the island by the emperor 
Probus to assume the purple. The frequency of such usurpations 
within the island seem to show a desire among the inhabitants to 
erect themselves into an independent sovereignty. We are told 
that a favourite courtier of Probus, named Victorinus Maurusius, 
had recommended this usurper to the propraetorship, and that, 
when reproached on this account by the emperor, Victorinus 
demanded permission to visit Britain. When he arrived there, 
he hastened to the propraetor, and sought his protection as a 
victim who had narrowly escaped from the tyranny of the emperor. 
The new sovereign of Britain received him with the greatest 
kindness, and in return was murdered in the night by his guest. 
Victorinus returned to Rome to give the emperor this convincing 
proof of his " loyalty." Probus was succeeded in the empire by 
Carus, and he was followed by Dioclesian, who began his reign in 
the year 284, and who soon associated with himself in the empire 
the joint emperor Maximian. Their reign, as far as regards 
Britain, was rendered remarkable chiefly by the successful usur- 
pation of Carausius. 

About this time another great change was taking place among 
the independent tribes in the north, the particulars of which are 
lost in the obscurity of history. It is supposed that the Dalreadic 
colony, under a leader whom tradition in the time of Bede named 
Reuda, now passed over from Ireland into the wilds of Lorn and 
Kintire, and laid the foundation of that people who ultimately 
gave to the whole of North Britain the name of Scotland. It is 
certain that, after the period of which we are now speaking, we 
lose sight of the old name of Caledonians, and even of the more 
recent one of Maeatae, and in their place appear those of Picts and 
Scots, with a tribe which was apparently of older date, and which 
now gained notoriety for its savage ferocity, the Attacotti. At the 
same time the eastern and south-eastern coasts of Britain began 
to be infested with the predatory incursions of the Saxon seafarers 



114 THE ROMANS. [chap. hi. 

from the mouth of the Elbe. To oppose these it was found 
necessary not only to erect a series of fortresses along the 
coast, but to establish and keep up a strong fleet in the channel, 
which had its places of rendezvous at Gessoriacum (Boulogne), 
and in the ports on the coasts of Kent, Sussex, and Hamp- 
shire. Among the officers of this fleet who distinguished 
themselves most against the enemy, was a Menapian of low birth, 
probably of the Batavian tribe of the Menapii, named Carausius, 
whose talents soon caused him to be singled out from his fellow- 
soldiers, and he was eventually appointed to the command of the 
whole fleet. His ambition seems now to have been fixed on a higher 
aim, and he appears to have formed leagues and alliances, the 
object of which could hardly be misunderstood. He showed his 
military and naval skill in his frequent victories over the German 
pirates ; but information was carried to the emperors that the 
plunder which he recaptured from the barbarians was seldom 
restored to those from whom it had been first taken, and it was even 
intimated, that instead of preventing the attacks of the enemy, 
he always contrived to let them first load themselves with 
plunder, and then attacked them and deprived them of their 
prey. By these or other means Carausius collected enormous 
wealth, which also was reported to Maximian, who sent orders to 
put the admiral of the British fleet to death. Carausius was 
soon informed of the emperor's intentions, and became aw T are 
that he had only one chance of safety. He seems to have been 
extremely popular among the soldiery both on land and in the 
fleet ; his great wealth gave him the means of attaching the 
mercenary to his fortunes ; and, making use of both these advan- 
tages, he entered into an alliance with the Franks, on whose 
borders he seems to have been born, and with other German 
tribes, seized the great naval station of Gessoriacum, and pro- 
claimed himself one of the emperors of Borne. Embarrassing 
revolts in other parts of the empire encouraged him in his design. 
Having thus proclaimed himself the equal and colleague of 
Dioclesian and Maximian, the talents of Carausius enabled him 
to retain his usurped sovereignty during a period of seven years. 
History has left us no account of the manner in which his govern- 
ment was carried on, but he was evidently a man of very extra- 
ordinary abilities, for it is said that, during this period, he not 
only set the power of Borne at defiance, but that he protected his 



chap, in.] COINS OF CARAUSIUS. 115 

subjects from the Saxons, and that he compelled the barbarians 
of the north to keep within the limits of their woods and marshes. 
One of the most extraordinary characteristics of the short reign 
of Carausius is the number and variety of his coinage. Upwards 
of three hundred different types are known, and there can be 
littje doubt that there are many others yet unknown. These 
authentic monuments throw some light on his character and 
history, and we have every reason to hope, that, in the hands of 
a skilful antiquary, they will some day be rendered still more 
available.- Of the great variety of reverses found on these coins, 
many, no doubt, refer to historical events. One of these, with 
the legend expectate veni, is supposed to have been struck 
on his arrival in Britain, after having assumed the imperial 
title at Gessoriacum ; the figure beneath the inscription 
represents the genius of Britain, with a trident in her hand, 
welcoming the new emperor. A number of coins having 
such inscriptions as adventvs caravsi, adventvs avgvsti, &c, 
with others inscribed victoria avgvstt, and virtvs avgvsti, 
seem to have been struck on his return from successful 
expeditions against his enemies. One, with a figure of a trophy 
between two captives, and the inscription victokia gee, perhaps 
commemorated some exploit on the coast of Germany. His 
care to conciliate the troops is shown not only in coins with 
the inscriptions concordia militvm and fides militvm, but in 
others struck in honour of each particular legion. The second 
legion, with its badge the Capricorn, and the twentieth, with its 
badge the boar, are thus commemorated, as well as several legions 
or parts of legions stationed in Gaul, which no doubt took part 
with the usurper. Other inscriptions, such as vbertas avg, 
aeqvitas avg, fortvna avg, felicitas avg, hilaritas avg, 
laetitia avg, pax avg, providentja avg, restitvt saecvli, 
saecvli felicitas, temporvm felicitas, no doubt were intended 
to proclaim the prosperity and happiness of the province 
under the rule of Carausius. When embarrassments in other 

* The antiquary Stukeley published a " Medallic History of Carausius," 
"which, although it displays too much of that writer's hasty speculations and con- 
clusions, show's us with how much advantage the coins might be made to illustrate 
the history. Mr. Roach Smith has announced a work on the coins of Carausius 
and Allectus, which we may be sure will be a valuable addition to the early 
history of this island. 

12 



116 



THE ROMANS. 



[chap. III. 



parts of the empire obliged Maximian to leave liim for a 
while to the enjoyment of his assumed dignity, and even, it is 
said, to agree to a treaty of friendship with him, Carausius pro- 
claimed himself an associate in the empire by coins with 
inscriptions such as caravsivs et fratres svi (round the three 
heads of Carausius, Dioclesian, and Maximian), pax avggg, salvs 
avggg, pietas avggg, &c, the three g's indicating the three 
emperors. Bat the most curious of all the coins of Carausius 
yet discovered, is one which has recently come into the possession 
of Mr. Roach Smith, and which, contrary to the universal practice 
of the earlier Roman coinage, gives the emperor's head with a front 
face, instead of a profile. From this circumstance, and from its 
superior execution, Mr. Smith is inclined to believe that it was 
struck expressly as a correct portrait of this remarkable man, 
and as thus it forms one of the most interesting records of our 
history, it is here given from his " Collectanea Antiqua," where 




it was first published. This unique coin is in small brass, in an 
excellent state of preservation, and was found at Wroxeter, in 
Shropshire, the site of the Roman town of Uriconium. 

We have said that Carausius held the supreme power in Britain 
during nearly seven years (from 287 to 293.) In .292, the two 
emperors, Maximian and Dioclesian, strengthened their govern- 
ment by the appointment of two Caesars, Constantius and Galerius; 
and Constantius, to whose lot the provinces of the west fell, 
prepared immediately to reduce the island chieftain. We have 
the account of the events that followed chiefly from imperial 
panegyrists, who conceal all the circumstances advantageous to 
the usurper, but their outline is no doubt correct. Constantius 
having collected a very powerful army, made a rapid march to 
Gessoriacum, and laid siege unexpectedly to the grand naval 
station of Carausius. Then, as now, this port could only be 



chap, in.] MUEDEK OF CAEAUSIUS. 117 

entered at full tide, and Constantius took advantage of the ebb to 
block it up entirely with an embankment of piles and stones. 
Before this, however, had been effected, Carausius, who was in 
Gessoriacum at the time of the arrival of Constantius, took to his 
ships and sailed away to Britain. 

Gessoriacum soon surrendered to the imperial arms, but Con- 
stantius found a greater obstacle to his immediate success in the 
want of ships. Four years passed away in the construction of 
a fleet, in the course of which Carausius himself had ceased to 
live. The empty bauble of empire had excited the ambition of 
Allectus, an officer whom Carausius had placed at the head of 
his fleet, and who basely and treacherously murdered his master. 
Allectus immediately seized the imperial authority, and, without 
the abilities of Carausius, attempted to follow in his course. 
During three years, while Constantius remained inactive, or only 
occupied in reducing to obedience the Franks and other allies of 
the usurper, Allectus was allowed to remain undisturbed. His 
coins include some which are different from those of his pre- 
decessor, and, considering the duration of his reign, they are 
almost as numerous. At length, in the year 296, Constantius 
had completed his vast preparations for invasion, and he is said 
to have been the first to set sail. His principal force, under the 
command of the prsefect Asclepiodotus, which had assembled in 
the mouth of the Seine, immediately followed, and directing their 
course towards the western coast of Britain, were enabled by a 
thick fog to elude the fleet of Allectus, which was stationed off 
the Isle of Wight. It was afterwards said in praise of 
Asclepiodotus, that he ventured out to sea on a stormy day, with 
a side wind, (which w r as then considered bold seamanship), and 
that when he landed on the British coast, he burnt his galleys, 
that his troops might find their only safety in victory 

Meanwhile Allectus, who expected that the imperial forces 
would cross over directly into Kent, had taken up a position in 
the neighbourhood of London. He no sooner received intelligence 
of the landing of Asclepiodotus, than he hurried hastily to meet 
him, carrying with him only a part of his troops, and those chiefly 
his Frankish auxiliaries. The consequence was that he w 7 as 
defeated in his first engagement with his enemies, and he was 
himself slain in the battle. As much of his army as escaped fled 
to London, intending, it is said, to plunder that rich city and then 



118 THE KOMANS. [chap. hi. 

sail with the spoils to the continent. But they were closely 
pursued by the imperial army, and the greater part of them are 
said to have been slain in the streets of the capital. According 
to the panegyrists, the population of Britain hailed the day of the 
arrival of Gonstantius as that of their redemption from an 
oppressive and cruel tyranny. The imperial commander took up 
his residence in York, from which we may perhaps assume that he 
had been called to the north to repress the turbulence of the 
Picts and Scots. But all we know of his proceedings is the 
simple fact, that he had been in Britain nine years when, in the 
year 305, the resignation of Dioclesian and Maximian left the 
Boman empire to Galerius and Constantius. 

Gonstantius, who is usually known by the name of Constantius 
Chlorus, was the father of Constantine the Great ; but the story 
that his wife Helena was of British origin appears to be a mere 
fable. At the time of his father's accession to the empire of the 
West, Constantine was serving in the army under Galerius, at 
Nicomedia, and it is supposed that Galerius, who would willingly 
have been without a partner in the empire, intended to keep him 
as a hostage for his father. But Constantine made his escape, 
and, travelling with extreme rapidity, reached Gessoriacum in 
safety, and, finding his father there, passed with him into Britain, 
where he assisted in the government, and soon ingratiated himself 
with the troops and with the people. They proceeded immediately 
to the north, to direct an expedition against the barbarians, but 
Constantius was already struck with disease, and, after this expe- 
dition, on the 25th of July, 306, he died at York. The soldiers 
immediately saluted his son Constantine as their emperor, and 
Galerius was induced to yield to their wishes. Constantine re- 
mained resident in our island, though his acts are not recorded, 
until, six years afterwards, he w T as called away to enter upon the 
contest which ended in making him sole ruler of the B-oman world. 

Britain now enjoyed a continued calm of more than thirty 
years. The emperor Constans paid a visit to Britain in 347, 
but we know not for what purpose ; though it is probable that the 
British legions had begun again to show an inclination to throw 
off their dependence on Borne. Three years after his return from 
Britain, Constans fell a sacrifice to the ambition and treason of 
Magnentius, one of his officers, a Briton by birth. The troops in 
Britain probably supported the cause of Magnentius, and, after 



chap, iil] MISSION OF PAULUS CATENA. 119 

that usurper's defeat and death, in 353, the province suffered 
severely from the anger of the conqueror. The historian 
Ammianus Marcellinus tells us that a Spanish notary, named 
Paulus, who had gained by his cunning and astuteness the sur- 
name of Catena (the chain], was sent to Britain to institute pro- 
ceedings against those who had espoused the cause of Magnentius. 
Paulus made use of the powers which had been given him by the 
emperor in so cruel and oppressive a manner, that he became an 
object of general detestation ; and when the civil ruler of the 
island, whose name was Martin, interfered in favour of his 
victims, he attempted to involve him, and many of his officers, 
under the same accusations. Ammianus tells us how Martin 
tried to save himself and his friends by slaying the imperial 
accuser, but, failing in the attempt, he immediately killed himself 
with his own sword. " Paulus returned to court steeped in 
British blood, and dragging with him a multitude of wretched 
victims loaded with chains, whose looks depicted the hopelessness 
of their destiny. Some of these suffered horrible tortures at the 
hands of the executioners ; while others were proscribed and 
exiled, and others had their heads struck from their bodies on 
the scaffold." 

The visitation of Paulus Catena was followed by one of a 
different kind, but no less disastrous to the inhabitants of the 
province. The Picts and Scots joined together, and began to 
carry their ravages far into the south. Britain had, no doubt, 
been robbed of much of its military force in the recent struggles 
for empire, and it had been further weakened by the severities of 
Paulus ; its troops, therefore, were insufficient for its defence, 
and they were obliged to send over into Gaul to ask assistance of 
Julian, to whom Constantius had entrusted the defence of that 
province against the incursions of the Germans. Julian sent to 
Britain his magister armorum, or camp marshal, Lupicinus, a 
brave and experienced officer, who took with him some light 
auxiliary troops, with a few companies of the Heruli, Msesians, 
and Batavians, and hastened over from Gessoriacum to Kutupia% 
and thence to London. We have no further account of his expe- 
dition, but he probably retaliated severely on the northern 
invaders, for the island seems to have had again a long period 
of undisturbed tranquillity. 



120 THE ROMAN'S. [chap. iv. 



CHAPTER IV. 

A Journey through Roman Britain — Londinium — Great Road from Londinium to 
Segontium — Verulamium ; Uriconium, &c. — Direct Northern Road from 
Londinium ; Durobrivse, Lindum, Danum, Eburacum, Isurium — Passage of 
the two Walls — Stations on the Wall — Branch to Luguballium and Blatum 
Bulgium — Eastern Road ; Carnulodunum, Camboricum — From Londinium 
to Calleva — Branch to Corinium and Glevum ; Isca, and Maridunum — 
From Glevum by Magna to Deva, and thence through Coccium to 
the North — Cross Roads — Salinse and other towns — The Western Road, 
from Calleva to Sorbiodunum, Durnovaria, and Isca Dumnoniorum — Aquae 
Solis — The trajectus to Wales, and the Sarn Helen — The Road on the 
Southern Coast ; Venta Belgarum, Clausentum, Portus Magnus, Regnum, 
Anderida, Portus Lemanis. 

At the period we have now reached the face of the island was 
strangely altered from that which it presented when visited by 
Caesar. Well inhabited and well cultivated, it was divided like 
a network by innumerable roads, many of them wide and all of 
excellent construction, which formed a communication between a 
multitude of flourishing cities and towns. Several principal lines 
of roads carried the traveller into and across the island in different 
directions.* 

* Two imperfect itineraries, giving us the names and distances from each other of 
the towns and stations on the principal military roads, have been preserved. The 
first is contained in the great Itinerarium of the Roman empire, which goes under 
the name of Antoninus, and is believed to have been compiled about a.d. 320. The 
other is contained in the work of Richard of Cirencester, and is supposed to have 
been copied by a monk of the fourteenth century, from an older itinerary or map. 
They differ a little from each other, but our faith in Richard's Itinerary is 
strengthened by the circumstance that nearly all the roads he gives which are not 
in Antoninus have been ascertained to exist. Traces of many Roman roads are 
found all over the country, not mentioned in these itineraries, and names of a great 
number of towns found neither in Antoninus nor in Richard, are given by an 
anonymous geographer of Ravenna, who wrote about the middle of the seventh 
century, but as he has placed them in no regular order, it is very difficult now to 
identify their sites. 



chap, iv.] THE STRANGER IN ROMAN BRITAIN. 121 

The stranger who embarked at Gessoriacum, on the coast of 
Gaul, was carried, guided at night by the light from the lofty 
pharos of Dubrse (Dover), into the port of Rutupiae, celebrated 
for its oysters, which was the usual place of landing from the 
Continent. The citadel of Rutupiae stood on an elevation com- 
manding the beach, and its massive walls still remain at Rich- 
borough, about three-quarters of a mile to the north-east of the 
modern town of Sandwich. From the masses of white marble 
that have been scattered about, it is evident that this citadel was 
adorned with handsome buildings. The town lay behind the 
citadel, spread over a gentle declivity, while at the top of the hill 
to the north are still seen the remains of its amphitheatre. 
Rutupiae stood on the edge of the isle of Thanet, separated from 
the rest of Cantium by a creek which ran through to the mouth 
of the Thames, where its entrance was defended by another 
town and citadel, named Regulbium, now Reculver, of which part 
of the walls still remain. Another Roman port seems to have 
occupied the site of the modern harbour of Ramsgate.* 

From Rutupise the traveller crossed over the water — the place 
whence the Rutupine oysters were taken, and where, in digging, 
the remains of the oyster-beds are still found — to the site of the 
present town of Sandwich, and here he entered the high road, 
which led directly over the Downs, by the present village of Ash, 
to a large town, called Durovernum, which occupied probably 
the whole site of the modern city of Canterbury. Part of the 
Roman walls were standing a century ago, and tesselated pave- 
ments and other antiquities discovered there at different times, 
show its importance. It was the point from which several roads 
branched, communicating with the towns on the coast, Regulbium, 
Rutupiaa, Dubrse, and the Portus Lemanis. The road leading to 
the interior of the island left Durovernum on the north-east, and 
proceeded over the high grounds of the forest of Blee, by a town 
named Durolevum, the probable site of which seems to be 
Davington, but which was apparently one of those unimportant 
stations that have left scarcely a trace behind, to a more impor- 
tant town named Durobrivas, on the site of the present city of 

* On the antiquities of Rutupise and Regulbium, the reader should consult the 
excellent work by Mr. Roach Smith, (6 The Antiquities of Richborough, Reculver, 
and Lymne," in which they have been investigated with remarkable skill and 
care. It is itself almost a manual of Roman antiquities. 



122 THE ROMANS. [chap, iv. 

Kochester, situated on a river then called the Madus, now the 
Medway. The road then proceeded across towards the banks of the 
Thames, where the traveller arrived at a town named Vagniacae, 
the situation of which is also somewhat doubtful, though it is 
generally believed to have stood in the neighbourhood of South- 
fleet. Traces of Roman settlements are found thickly scattered 
along the line of this road, and between it and the Thames. 
From Vagniacae the road proceeded by Dartford, over Shooter's 
Hill, across Blackheath, and to a town in the territory of the 
ancient tribe of the Regni, called Noviomagus, which is supposed 
to have stood on the side of Holwood Hill, in the parish of 
Bromley. Fifteen Roman miles to the north brought the traveller 
again to the banks of the Thames, at the foot of the bridge by 
which he entered the great commercial town of Londinium. 

Roman London was built on the elevated ground on both sides 
of a stream, known in after times by the name of Wall-brook, 
which ran into the Thames not far from South wark Bridge, and 
extending westward to the edge of a hill overlooking another 
stream, called in later times Holbourne, and on the east almost 
to the Tower. Its walls were identical with those which inclosed 
the mediaeval city of London. At this time it seems to have had 
two principal lines of streets, one running from the bridge north- 
ward in the line of Bishopsgate-street, the other branching from 
it, and running along the line of the modern Watling-street, till 
it left the city by Ludgate. At the western end of this street 
the principal temples and public buildings seem to have stood, 
crowning the hill, and occupying the side which sloped down to 
the river. The northern and north-eastern parts of the town 
were occupied with extensive and — to judge by the remains which 
have been brought to light — magnificent mansions. Londinium 
had increased much in extent since it had been founded by the 
Romans. It has been supposed by a recent writer that the first 
town w 7 as confined to the hill on the east of Walbrook.* Mr. 
Roach Smith discovered in excavations on the site of the Royal 
Exchange, pits which had been receptacles of the rubbish from 
the shops and houses of Roman London at an earlier period of 
its existence, and which had been afterwards filled up and built 

* This notion on the earliest form of Londinium was published in an essay on 
the original site of Roman London, by Mr. Arthur Taylor, in the thirty-third 
volume of the " Archaeologia." 



chap, iv.] LONDINIUM AND VEEULAMIUM. 123 

over. At the period to which our last chapter has brought us, 
the city had extended to the other side of the Thames, and the 
borough of South wark stands upon ground which covers the 
floors of Roman houses and the pavings of Roman streets.* 

Two principal roads led out of Londinium on the north side of 
the Thames ; one apparently in the direction of Bishopsgate, 
the other eastward, through Ludgate, across Holbourne, and in 
the direction of Fleet-street and the Strand. Without Newgate, 
on each side of this road, the principal sepulchral monuments 
of the citizens of Londinium appear to have stood. It was 
the grand route to the west of Britain ; but somewhere near 
the present site of Knightsbridge another large road branched 
off northward, and proceeded in a direct line along the modern 
Kilburn road, until the traveller arrived at a town named 
Sulloniacae, the traces of which are now found on an elevation 
called Brockley Hill, a little south of Elstree, on the borders of 
Hertfordshire. Hence the road continued its direct course, 
through a rich and varied country, to the grand municipal city of 
Verulamium, the extensive walls of which are still traced in the 
neighbourhood of St. Albans. Verulamium was the fashionable 
town of the south-east, and possessed, what few towns in Britain 
did, a theatre 

From Verulamium the road proceeded through the same rich 
country, nearly straight, to a town named Durocobrivss, which 
must have stood at or in the immediate vicinity of the modern 
town of Dunstable, which is marked as an ancient station by the 
number of tumuli and entrenchments in the neighbourhood. It 
was apparently the great market of these agricultural districts, 
over which the goddess Diana presided, as it was known also by 
the name of Forum Dianas. On leaving this place, the traveller 
continued his route across the beautiful country to the south of 
Woburn till he entered a more open valley, where he reached 
the town of Magiovintum, supposed to have stood at the place 
where the road crossed the river Ousel, in the immediate vicinity 

* Numerous particulars relating to Roman London will be found in papers by 
Mr. Roach Smith, scattered through the volumes of the " Archseologia," of the 
Society of Antiquaries, and other archaeological works. See also a paper on this 
subject in the w Archaeological Album. 1 ' | Whenever excavations are made within 
the limits of the city of London, the workmen come to the Roman floors at a depth 
of from twelve to eighteen or twenty feet under the present level. } 



124 THE ROMANS. . [chap. iv. 

of Fenny Stratford. The road then again mounted higher 
ground, passing through the town of Stoney Stratford, and so 
on to Lactodorum, a town occupying the site of the modern 
Towcester. The road then turned slightly north to Weedon, 
at which point a cross road turned off, leading to what some 
have considered two towns, Isannavaria and Bennaventa, which 
have been placed at Burnt Walls and Burrow Hill, ancient 
sites near Daventry, though others have imagined it to be one 
town under two different names. The main road continued its 
course from Weedon in a straight line across an open country 
to the neighbourhood of the modern town of Lilburne, where 
it crossed the river Avon at Dove Bridge. Here stood a town 
called Tripontium, wiiich must have possessed something re- 
markable in its bridge or bridges across the river. Tumuli and 
earthworks, scattered over the country around, again mark it as 
a place of some importance. The country now became more 
uneven, and the road proceeded till it reached the top of a hill 
within the borders of Leicestershire, where stood the town of 
Benonse, the site of which is now occupied by High Cross. The 
next town at which the traveller arrived was Manduessedura, 
occupying the slope of a hill over the river Anker, and surrounded 
by high grounds. The site of this town is now called Manceter 
(in the county of Warwick), and the square entrenchments of the 
ancient station are still seen, while the hills to the south are 
covered with tumuli. After leaving Manduessedum, the traveller 
passed through a continuation of rich agricultural district, open 
to the north, but rising into a fine hilly country to the south, the 
road generally taking the higher grounds, until it reached the 
town of Eteocetum. The last traces of its buildings have long 
disappeared, but the tradition of them appears to be preserved in 
the modern name of the site, Wall, in Staffordshire. The road 
turned hence westward, proceeding direct through Stretton, till it 
crossed the little river Penk, where stood the town of Penno- 
crucium. The road now went through a more wooded and hilly 
country, until the traveller arrived at Uxaconium, apparently but 
a small unimportant town, which has been placed by some at Ked 
Hill, a little to the north-east of Shiffnal, in Shropshire, and by 
others at Oaken-gates, near Wembridge. It proceeded thence, 
turning slightly south, to the important town of Uriconium or 
Viriconium, the imposing remains of which are still seen at 



chap, iv.] THE GREAT NORTHERN" ROAD. 125 

the modern village of Wroxeter. Here one branch of the great 
road crossed the Severn, and proceeded in a north- westwardly 
direction to Rutuniuro, a Roman town, the site of which is generally 
placed at Rowton, in Shropshire, after which it entered Wales, 
passing under the north end of the Brythen mountain, to a town 
called Mediolanum, situated where the road crossed the river 
Tanad. The traveller then pursued his way among the wild 
mountains of North Wales, till he approached the majestic heights 
of Mons Heriri (Snowdon), and halted at a station of that name, 
the entrenchments of which are still observed at a place named 
from them Tomen-y-mur, in the valley of Maentwrog. Thence 
the road led down to the coast, where the traveller entered 
Segontium, one of the most important Roman towns in Wales, 
the walls of which are still visible at Caer Seiont, near Caernarvon, 
on the coast of the Irish Sea. 

If the stranger were not bound for the midland districts, he 
might leave Londinium by the gate known in later times by the 
name of Bishopsgate, and pursue the great road to the north. 
His way at first ran through woods and corn districts, and the 
traveller passed over considerable distances without meeting with 
towns or stations. His first halting-place was a small station 
named — we are not certain why — Ad Fines, the site of which is 
supposed to have been at Broughing, in Hertfordshire, at the 
confluence of two streams, the Rib and the Quin. Thence the 
road proceeded in a direct line to Durolipons, the site of which is 
fixed without doubt at Godmanchester, on the river Ouse. The 
traveller had now entered upon the low, flat country on the 
borders of the fens, to avoid which the road turned a little west, 
and then continuing its dreary course to the north reached a 
district covered with potteries, in the midst of which he entered 
a rich and elegant town named Durobrivge, situated on one of 
the sluggish rivers of this district, which in modern times is called 
the Nen, and the site of the Roman town is now occupied by an 
obscure village called Castor.* Hence the road continued nearly 
north, with a slight curve, to another town of some importance, 
named Causennse, or, according to other authorities, Isinse, situ- 
ated on slightly elevated ground. There can be no doubt this 

* The very interesting antiquities of this Roman town were explored by the late 
Mr. E. Tyrrell Artis, of Castor, who published them in a series of expensive plates, 
but which were not accompanied with a text. 



126 THE ROMANS, [chap. tv. 

town occupied the site of the modern Ancaster, which has been 
celebrated for its Eoman antiquities since the time of Leland.* 
Another stage brought the traveller to Lindum, a noble city, both 
for the elegance of its buildings, and its position on a lofty 
isolated hill, commanding extensive views on every side over the 
flat country around. Its modern representative is easily recognised 
in the city of Lincoln. 

The traveller who was not willing to follow the dreary road we 
have been describing, might take another route, which, though 
less direct, lay through a more beautiful country, in which the 
towns were more numerous and interesting. He left Londinium by 
its western gate, and proceeding along the road already described, 
he passed through SulloniacaB, Verulamium, Durocobrivae. Magio- 
vintum, Lactodorum, and Tripontium, to Venonse. There, 
instead of continuing his route to Manduessedum, he took 
another great road which turned off to the north-east, and pro- 
ceeded direct to Ratae, one of the largest and most important of 
the midland cities, adorned with rich mansions and temples, and 
other public buildings, f Its site is now occupied by the town of 
Leicester. Thence, keeping to the eastward of the great forest 
of Charnwood, the road proceeded over a rich country to Vero- 
metum — a town supposed to have stood in the immediate neigh- 
bourhood of Willoughby, on the borders of Nottinghamshire. 
A few miles more brought the traveller to a town on the river 

* Leland, in his Itinerary, vol. i., pp. 28, 29, has left us the following note on 
the antiquities discovered at Ancaster in his time: — "In tymes past it hath hene a 
celebrate toune, but not waullid, as far as I could perceive. The building of it lay 
in lenghth by south and north. In the south ende of it be often tymes founde in 
ploughing great square stones of old buildinges and Romayne coynes of brasse and 
sylver. In the west ende of it, where now meadowes be, ar founde yn diching 
great vaultes. . . . An old man of Ancaster told me that by Ureby, or Roseby, 
a ploughman toke up a stone, and found another stone under it, wherein was a 
square hole having Romaine quoin in it. He told me also that a ploughman toke 
up in the feldes of Harleston a 2 miles from Granteham a stone, under the which 
was a potte of brasse, and an helmet of gold, sette with stones in it, the which was 
presentid to Catarine princes dowager. There were bedes of silver in the potte, 
and writings corruptid." 

+ The importance and beauty of Ratse are evinced by the numerous fine tesse- 
lated pavements that have been found there. Some of its public buildings appear 
to have been standing in the time of Geoffrey of Monmouth, who speaks of a sub- 
terranean temple of Janus : " In quodam subterraneo quod sub Sora fluvio intra 
Legecestriam fieri prasceperat. Erat autem subterraneum illud conditum in 
honorem bifrontis Jani." — Galf. Mon. Hist. Brit, lib. ii., c. 14. 



chap, iy.] TOWNS ON THE NORTH ROAD. 127 

Trent, named Margidunuin, supposed to have stood at or near 
Bridgeford, and next he reached a station on the same river, called, 
no doubt from its bridge over the river, Ad Pontem, believed to 
have stood near the modern village of Farndon. The next 
halting-place was Crococolana, a town supposed to have stood at 
B rough, in Lincolnshire, from which another stage took him to 
Lindum.* 

Here he again took the north road from Londinium, and soon 
after leaving Lindum he turned off westwardly, and, after a short 
stage, repassing the river Trent, halted at the town of Segelocum, 
or Agelocum, on the site of the modern town of Littleborough. 
Thence, still keeping a little westward, the road brought him, 
after a somewhat longer stage, to the more important station of 
Danuin, a site now known by the somewhat celebrated name of 
Doncaster. From Danum the road turned north, and after a 
shorter stage reached Legiolium, supposed to have occupied the 
site of the modern village of Castleford, at the confluence of the 
Ayr and Calder, and proceeded thence to the town of Calcaria, 
which probably received its name from its lime-works, and is now 
represented by Tadcaster, the last station before reaching Ebu- 
racum, the second, if not the first city in Britain. 

There was another road from Lindum to Eburacum. It pro- 
ceeded in a direct line from the former place to a town or station 
on the Humber (Abus), called — no doubt from the great river near 
which it stood— Ad Abum, supposed to have been at Winterton. 
The traveller arrived here in two stages, stopping only at a half- 
way station, the only name of which that has come down to us is 
one taken from its position, In Medio. From Ad Abum the 
traveller crossed the Humber in a boat, and landed at another 
town, called, from the river on which it stood, Ad Petuariam, 
supposed to have occupied the site of Brough on the Humber, 
where interesting Roman antiquities have been found. From 
Brough the road seems to have proceeded to Eburacum without 
any intermediate station, a distance estimated in the ancient 
itinerary at forty-six Roman miles, so that it perhaps went by a 
circuitous route, joining some one of the roads from Eburacum to 
the coast. 

* The Roman towns between Ratse and Lindum have been less almost than 
any others examined by modern antiquaries, and their sites are only fixed by 
conjecture. 



128 , THE ROMANS. [chap. iv. 

Eburacum, or Eboracum,* (as its name was differently spelt), 
occupied the banks of a navigable river called the Urus, (now the 
Ouse). Within its walls, which were of considerable extent, stood 
the imperial palace, and no doubt other magnificent edifices, and 
both within and without were temples to most of the Roman 
gods, as well as to the eastern deities, Serapis and Mithras. Out- 
side the walls, the city was surrounded with extensive and well 
built suburbs. j 

Many roads branched off from Eburacum in different directions. 
Several of these ran towards the coast, and communicated no 
doubt with trading ports. Of these the principal was a military 
road, leading by two towns, named Derventio and Delgovitia, to 
an apparently important town on the coast called Prsetorium. 
Various positions have been fixed for these towns, chiefly on the 
assumption that Prsetoriuni stood at Flamborough Head. There 
are extensive remains of an important Roman station at Old 
Mai ton, on the river Derwent, and as we know that there was 
Derventio in the interior of the island on a river called the 
Derwent, it is not improbable that the station at Old Mai ton may 
have been Derventio. But the Roman antiquities of East 
Yorkshire have as yet been very imperfectly explored. 

The great north road, which we have been pursuing, after 
leaving Eburacum, turned westward, in the direction of the Ouse, 
until, at the end of a comparatively short stage, the traveller 
arrived at another large and well-built town, Isurium, the walls 
of which are still traced at Aldborough, and within them the 
excavator meets continually with the tesselated floors of the 
Roman houses. J A longer stage carried the traveller to Cataracto, 
or Cataractonium, the ancient name of which has been preserved 
by the village of Catteric, on the river Swale, and a few miles 
further the road crossed the river Tisa (the Tees), it is supposed 

* Eburacum is the spelling given in the Itinerary of Antoninus, in Ptolemy, 
and in the geographer of Ravenna, while an inscription formerly found at York, 
but not preserved, as well as the Roman historians who mention this place, call it 
Eboracwn. The weight of authority, however, seems to he turned in favour of 
the former by an inscription more recently discovered, and certainly reading ebvr. 

^ An excellent volume on the Roman antiquities of York has been published 
by the Rev. C. Wellbeloved, of that city, under the title of " Eburacum, or York 
under the Romans," which is recommended earnestly to the student of the history 
and antiquities of the Romans in Britain. 

J A series of very carefully executed plates of the tesselated pavements of 
Isurium have been recently published by Mr. H. Ecroyd Smith. 



chap, iv.] PASSAGE OF THE WALL. 129 

at Pieroebridge, near Darlington, where there was also a station. 
The traveller had now entered the modern county of Durham, 
and the road pursued its course nearly north, through a rich and 
interesting country, to Vinovium, a town of some extent, of 
which there are considerable remains in the modern hamlet of 
Binchester, near Bishop Auckland. The next town on this road 
was Epiacum, which occupied a lofty brow on a tongue of land 
formed by the junction of two small streams on the west side of 
the modern village of Lanchester, where abundant remains of the 
Boman town have been found. It appears by inscriptions found 
on this site, that this town had its basilica or court-house, and 
its public baths and arsenal, and other important buildings. The 
road now turned westwardly again till it reached Vindomora, 
which is supposed to be the station traceable at Ebchester, on the 
borders of Northumberland.* A few miles further stood the 
town of Corstopitum, the modern site of which is called Corchester, 
near Corbridge on the Tyne, and before he reached it r a bridge, 
of which the remains are still to be traced, carried the traveller 
over the river Tina. He was now only about two miles from the 
great wall erected by the emperor Hadrian, which the road passed 
at an opening a little to the west of the station of Hunnum. 
On the other side of the wall the road separated into two branches, 
one of which turned off towards the coast, while the other pro- 
ceeded to the town of Habitancum (now Bisingham), situated on a 
pleasant stream, in a small valley, sheltered by surrounding hills. 
An inscription found in this place commemorates the rebuilding, 
in the reign of Caracalla, of the gate and of the walls, which had 
become ruinous by age : the remains, which after so many centuries 
still present themselves, show that they were rebuilt well. A 
very little further stood the town of Bremenium, which an in- 
scription identifies with the modern village of High Bochester. 
Here also a bridge passed over the river. The traveller then 
pursued his way by longer stages by Trimontium, which has been 
fixed at Eildon, and Curia, placed by some at Currie, and by 
others at Borthwick Castle, to the eastern end of the vallum of 

* Some doubt has "been thrown en the appropriation of these two last sites, 
though it does not appear to be well founded. No other sites answer so well to 
Epiacum and Vindomora, and we can find no other names for what, by the remains 
still visible, were evidently towns of considerable importance. 

K 



130 THE ROMANS. [chap. iv. 

Antoninus, and passing it, if he were bound to the far north, he 
proceeded to the towns of Alauna, Lindum, Victoria, and Orrea. 
In the course of the great road from Eburacum to the north, 
it had several smaller offsets or branches. One of these led 
apparently from Vinovium to the important town of PonsiElii, or 
Newcastle, and another to the stations which commanded the 
mouth of the Tyne, at Jarrow and South Shields. A larger 
branch turned off a little beyond Cataracto, and carried the tra- 
veller westward to the town of Lavatrse, which, there seems little 
reason for doubt, occupied the site of the present town of Bowes. 
A few miles further he reached Verterae, which is supposed to 
have stood on the site of the town of Brough in Westmoreland, 
where many Eoman antiquities have been found at different 
times.* He was now on the confines of the mountainous district 
which had formed the stronghold of the Brigantes ; to the south 
rose the heights of Stanemoor, while to the west were seen the 
still nobler mountains of the lake district, which he approached 
nearer as he reached the next town of Brovonacse, supposed 
to have stood at the modern village of Kirby-Thore, where 
Roman antiquities are found, and Brocavium, which its position 
and the numerous antiquities found there seem to identify with 
Brougham, f Another stage and the traveller arrived at the 
important city of Luguballium, or Luguvallium, with its temples 
and palaces, and other public edifices. Tbere can be no doubt 
that the modern city of Carlisle stands upon its ruins. J From 

* In the time of Leland, Brough seems to have been proverbial for the 
antiquities continually found there. He says : — " Borow, now a vyllage, set in 
Lunesdale a vi. myles beneth the foote of Dentdale, hath beene by likelyhod sum 
notable town. The ploughmenne find there yn ering lapides quadratos, and 
many other straung thinges ; and this place is much spoken of the inhabitants 
there." — Itinerary, vol. vii., p. 48. 

+ " At Burgham is an old castel that the commune people ther eayeth doth 
synke. Abowt this Burgham plowghmen fynd in the feldes many square stones, 
tokens of old buildinges. The castel is set in a stronge place by reasons of ryvers 
enclosing the cuntery therabowt." — Leland's Itinerary, vol. vii,, p. 49. 

X " There is a curious passage in Bede's Life of St. Cuthbert (chap. 27), where 
the saint is described as visiting the city of Lugubalia, and as being taken by the 
citizens to see the Roman walls, and the wonderful fountain which had been 
built there by the Romans. " Venit ad Lugubaliam civitatem (quae a populis 
Anglorum corrupte Luel vocatur). . . . Postera autem die deducentibus eum 
civibus ut videret moenia civitatis, fontemque in ea miro quondam Romanorum 
opere exstructum." This was in the seventh century. Leland, at the beginning 
of the sixteenth century, speaks of the numerous antiquities found at Carlisle in his 



chap, iv.] TOWXS ON THE WALL. 131 

Luguballium the road again passed the wall of Hadrian, proceeding 
by the Castra Exploratorum, which is identified with the modern 
Netherby, where numerous antiquities have been found, Blatum 
Bulgium, which is placed at Middleby, and Uxelum, which is 
supposed to have stood at Castleover, and so on to Colania, the 
modern Lanark, and Vanduaria, or Paisley, where it passed the 
western extremity of the great barrier of Antoninus, and ended 
at the remote town of Theodosia, or Dumbarton.* 

The traveller in Britain has thus, by two different roads, passed 
the wall of Hadrian, and the more northerly earthen vallum of 
Antoninus. The first of these monuments must have attracted 
his attention by its extraordinary character, and he would be 
tempted to cross the island by the great road which accompanied 
its course. As he approached it from Eburacum he entered a 
populous region, which marked the great commercial importance 
of the stations on the Tyne. Strong posts commanded the 
entrance to the river both on the south and on the north. One 
of these stood at Tynemouth, where, as we learn from a mutilated 
inscription still preserved, the usurper Maximinus, then an officer 
in the sixth legion, erected some public buildings, which included 
a basilica, as well as a temple, which seem to have occupied the 
site of the famous abbey of after ages. A few miles up the bank 
of the river brought the traveller to the town or station of 
Segedunum. Here the wall of Hadrian began, and from this 
circumstance the spot has received in modern times the name, 
now so widely celebrated, of Wallsend. The wall was a massive 
work of masonry, varying from six to nearly ten feet in thickness, 
and from eighteen to nineteen feet high. On the north it was 
accompanied by a foss thirty-six feet wide, and fifteen feet deep. 
To the south was another lesser foss, with a triple entrenchment 

time (Itin. 9 vol. vii. 5 p. 54). "In diggying to make new building yn the towne 
often tymes hath bene, and now a late, fownd diverse fundations of the old cite, as 
pavimentes of streates, old arches of dores, coyne, stones squared, paynted pottes, 
mony hid yn pottes so hold and muldid that when yt was stronly towchid yt went 
almost to mo wider; as yn M . . . glalbys howse.yn diggyng for the squaryng 
his gardin and orchard, the which ston . . . eth much sowth. The 
hole site of the towne is sore chaungid. For wher as the stretes where and great 
edifices now be vacant and garden plottes. In the feldes abowt Cairluel yn 
plowghing hath be fownd diverse cornelines and other stonys well entayled for 
seales, and yn other places of Cumbarland in plowinge hath be fownd brickes 
couteyninge the prints of antique workes." — Page 54 . 

* The Roman antiquities of Scotland have been collected in a volume, entitled 
" Caledonia Romana," by Robert Stuart. Edinburgh, 1845. 

k 2 



132 THE KOMANS. . [chap. iv. 

of earth and stones. At no great distance apart, along the line 
of the wall, were stations or towns, each consisting of a citadel, 
strongly walled, with streets and habitations within, and often 
extensive suburbs without. Between these towns stood smaller 
fortresses, which, from the circumstance of their occurring at the 
distance of one Roman mile from each other, have been termed 
mile-castles ; and between each of these again were four small 
subsidiary buildings, which for distinction have been termed 
watch-towers. 

The wall, as we have just stated, began on the east at Sege- 
dunum. It there advanced to the south into the river Tyne, as 
far as the low- water mark, while it pursued its course westwardly to 
a town of great extent and commercial importance, named, from 
its bridge across the river Tyne built by Hadrian, Pons iElii, 
which occupied the site of the present town of Newcastle. Little 
more than two miles from this place brought the traveller to 
Condercum, a town beautifully situated on an elevated knoll, 
which commands views of the valley of the Tyne to the south- 
west, and northwardly of the distant and lofty Cheviots. The 
houses and walls of the ancient town may still be traced in the 
unevenness of the sod which covers them, at a spot which is now 
called Benwell. Thence the wall proceeded over hill and vale, 
for the country was here much varied, to the next town, which 
appears to have been of less importance, and was called Vindo- 
bala ; its site is now called Rutchester. The next town which 
presented itself to the traveller was named Hunnum, apparently 
a handsome and well-inhabited place, the deserted site of which 
may now be distinctly traced at Halton-Chesters. He now 
crossed the great road which passed the wall in its way from 
York, and, pursuing the course of the wall, crossed the northern 
Tyne by a bridge, of which the piers still remain, and entered 
the large town of Cilurnum, the extensive ruins of which, well 
described as a British Pompeii, are visible near the modern 
hamlet of Chesters. This station also had its temples and public 
buildings, which, to judge from the broken statues and fragments 
of architectural decoration which are found there, must have been 
distinguished by their beauty. The next town, Procolitia, distant 
only a short stage, is traced at the spot now called Carrawburgh. 
Another stage, abcftit the same length, brought the traveller to 
the fine town of Borcovicus, perhaps, after Pons JElii, the largest 



chap, iv.] TOWNS ON THE WALL. 133 

on the wall, the very extensive remains of which are found at a 
place now named Housesteads. He was now among the hills, 
surrounded with magnificent scenery, and might contemplate in 
the distance the rugged mountains which sheltered the northern 
enemies of Eome. A little to the west of Borcovicus, he left the 
w r all to proceed a short distance south, to the town of Yindolana, 
the site of which is now marked distinctly hy the remains of walls 
and houses at Chesterholm. He then regained the wall, and 
arrived at iEsica, the walls of which are still seen at Great 
Chesters. The wall now again ran its course through the moun- 
tains, in some places rising up or descending precipitous heights, 
which struck the traveller with astonishment and even with terror. 
The ground was unfit for towns, and the next he came to, Magna, 
was built a little to the south of the wall, on the ground below, 
at a place now called Carvoran, on a little river, and by the side 
of a high road which ran southward to the town of Aliona, which 
is believed to have stood at Whitley Castle, about two miles to the 
north of Alston, and northward into the country between the two 
walls. Hence, following the valley, the traveller came soon to 
Amboglanna, a larger town, of which there are very extensive 
remains at Birdoswald, in a rich valley on the river Irthing. 
Further on, a little south of the wall, stood Petriana, at a place 
now called Cambeck Fort, and a short distance south-east of this, 
on a road which led from Magna direct to Luguballium, thus 
avoiding the circuit here made by the wall, was another station, 
named Bremetenracum, the intrenched area of which may be 
still traced in the park at Brampton. The next town on the wall 
was Aballaba, supposed to have stood at Watch-cross, though its 
site is not quite certain. The traveller, in following the course of 
the wall, now passed successively the towns of Congavata, near 
which the wall joined the city of Luguballium, Axelodunum, 
Gabrosentae, and Tunnocelum, where the wall ended on the coast 
of the estuary of Ituna (the Solway Frith). The last-mentioned 
town is supposed to have occupied the site of Bowness; the 
others are doubtful, but they have been placed by conjecture at 
Burgh-upon-Sands and Drumburgh. A road from Luguballium 
led through a series of towns which were evidently connected 
with the wall as a system of defence against the incursions of the 
northern barbarians and their allies from Hibernia. This road pro- 
ceeded from Luguballium to Olenacum, which is supposed to have 



134 THE ROMANS. [chap iv. 

been the strong station now seen at Old Carlisle ; Virosidum, 
supposed to be identical with the Roman remains at Maryport 
and the adjacent village of Ellenborough, on the coast of Cum- 
berland ; and Glanovanta, the site of which is more doubtful.* 

The stranger who was desirous of visiting the eastern districts 
of Britain, the old territory of the Trinobantes and the Iceni, 
might have proceeded from the south to Lindum by a more 
circuitous route. Leaving the great northern road soon after it 
quitted Londinium, he proceeded by a road which took an easterly 
direction, till he reached a town named Durolitum, or Durositum, 
which is believed to have stood near Romford in Essex. The 
next town he came to was called Csesaromagus, and is generally 
identified with the modern Chelmsford. Canonium, which 
followed, is usually placed in the vicinity of Kelvedon, on the 
river Pant. From thence the traveller approached the grand 
city of Camulodunum, or, as it is called in the Itinerary, 
^Camalodunum, the capital of the British princes after they had 
submitted to the Romans, and the first Roman city in the island 
which was honoured with the rank of a colonia. j History speaks 
of its temples and public buildings ; and if, at an early period of 
its history, it was exposed to attack without walls of defence, 
that want was so well supplied at a subsequent period, that the 
ponderous masonry of its walls has endured to the present day, 
and ought never to have allowed anybody to hesitate in placing 
the site of this ancient city at Colchester, f A few miles to the 
north of Camulodunum, the road crossed the river Sturius (Stour,) 

* No district in England is so interesting for its antiquities as that of the wall 
of Hadrian. It has been made the subject of an excellent and most instructive 
volume, by the Rev. J. Collingwood Bruce, of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, under the 
title of " The Roman Wall : a historical, topographical, and descriptive Account of 
the Barrier of the Lower Isthmus, extending from the Tyne to the Solway, 
deduced from numerous personal Surveys." The Wall district shows us in a 
remarkable manner the effect of modern cultivation in destroying ancient 
monuments. From Newcastle to the ancient Amboglanna (Birdoswald), which 
extends over a wild and insecure country, the stations and posts are easily identified, 
and buildings of all kinds lie in masses of ruins, which are only slightly covered 
by the accumulation of earth. To the west of Amboglanna, the country has 
been more highly cultivated, and the plough has so completely obliterated the 
trace of Roman works, that we can only guess at the sites of ancient towns, and 
the positions of all the western stations of the wall are very doubtful. 

+ The only good account of the Roman antiquities of Colchester will be found 
in a paper by Mr. Roach Smith, in the « Journal of the Archaeological 
Association/' vol. ii., p. 29. 



chap, iv.] EASTERN TOWNS ; CAMBORICUM. 135 

where there was a station called Ad Ansaro, supposed to have 
stood on the site of the present village of Stratford. The 
traveller then proceeded by longer stages to the towns of Com- 
bretoniurn and Sitomagus, which are conjectured to have stood 
at Burgh, near Woodbridge, and at Dunwich, on the coast. The 
course of this road is, however, at present very uncertain, and we 
only know that it ended at the eastern Venta, or Venta of the 
Iceni, which, there seems no reason to doubt, stood at Caistor, 
near Norwich. From Venta the Itinerary brings us, without any 
intermediate station, to Camboricum, which occupied the site of 
the modern town of Cambridge. Another road from Colchester 
led by Villa Faustini, the position of which seems to be exceed- 
ingly doubtful, to Iciani, a town which has been conjectured, 
perhaps only from a fancied resemblance of name, to have occupied 
the site of the modern Icklingham, and in that case the road seems 
there to have joined the other road from Venta to Camboricum. 
There was also a direct road from Camulodunum to Camboricum, 
of which the Itineraries give no account. Camboricum was 
without doubt a very important town, which commanded the 
southern fens. It had three forts or citadels, the principal of 
which occupied the district called the Castle-end, in the modern 
town of Cambridge, and appears to have had a bridge over the 
Cam or Granta ; of the others, one stood below the town, at 
Chesterton, and the other above it, at Granchester. Numerous 
roads branched off from this town. One of these proceeded to 
Durolipons (Godmanchester), where it joined the great north road, 
and proceeded by it to Lindum. Another ran north into the 
Fens, towards Ely and Lynn. Others proceeded to Venta of the 
Iceni and to Camulodunum. Another proceeded southward to 
London, having stations at Chesterford and perhaps at other 
places in its course. Lastly, a continuation of the road from 
Venta ran in a south-westerly direction towards the fashionable 
districts of Gloucestershire and Somerset. Bede calls the repre- 
sentative of Camboricum, in his time, " a little deserted city," and 
tells us how, when the nuns of Ely wanted a coffin for their 
saintly abbess, Etheldreda, they found a beautiful sculptured sarco- 
phagus of white marble outside the city walls of the Boman town. # 

* " Yenerunt ad civitatularn quandam desolatam, non procul inde sitam, quas 
lingua Anglorum Grantacestir vocatur ; et mox invenerimt juxta muros civitatis 
locelluin de marmore albo pulcherrime factum, operculo quoque similis lapidis 
aptis8ime tectum." — Bedce Hist. FccL, lib. iv., c. 19. 



136 THE ROMANS, [chap. iv. 

If the traveller, when he entered Britain, desired to visit the 
western parts of the island, he left Londinium by its western 
gateway, and proceeded along the great road, leading through the 
present towns of Brentford and Hounslow to Staines, where it 
crossed the Thames over a bridge, from which the Koman town 
at this place took the name of Pontes. Having here passed the 
river, the traveller came to a town named Bibracte, the position 
of which is not known, and then continued his way through a 
rich and varied country to the great town of Calleva, the walls 
of which, as they still remain at Silchester, on the northern 
border of Hampshire, enclose an area three miles in circuit. 
Thence he proceeded over hilly grounds and heaths to a town 
named Spinae, the name of which seems to be preserved in the 
modern village of Speen, in Berkshire. The road then carried 
him over a more level and open country, after a long stage, to 
Corinium, a town filled with magnificent houses and public 
buildings, which occupied the site of the modern Cirencester. 
Some of the richest and most elegant mosaic pavements in this 
island, dug up here, show its ancient splendour.* Another 
stage conducted the traveller over the hills to the large colonial 
city of Grlevum, now represented by Gloucester. 

Glevum was a town of great importance, as standing not only 
on the Severn, near the place where it opened out into the Bristol 
Channel, but also as being close to the great Boman iron district 
of the Forest of Dean. A road passed the Severn, and ran 
north-westward over the hilly country on the east of the forest to 
the town of Ariconium, the great station of the iron manufactures 
of this district, a fine position, commanding an extensive prospect 
over the surrounding country. Its site is now called Weston, at 
a short distance to the south-east of Boss. The road proceeded 
hence across the beautiful country on the banks of the Wye, 
among hills covered with cinders and iron furnaces, to the town 
of Blestium, which antiquaries agree in placing at Monmouth, on 
a bend of the river. Thence the old road, continuing nearly in 
the same direction, carried the traveller to Burrium, another con- 
siderable town, the remains of which have been found at Usk. 

* See the recently published work on the Roman antiquities of Cirencester, by- 
Messrs. Buckman and Newmarck, entitled " Illustrations of the Remains of 
Roman Art, in Cirencester, the site of Ancient Corinium." 



chap, iv.] ISCA TO MEXAPIA. 137 

This beautiful country, and all the southern coast of Wales, were 
well inhabited. After a short stage the traveller arrived at the 
grand city of Isca, the head quarters of the second legion, remark- 
able for its theatre, its temples, and its palaces.* It stood on the 
river Usk, in a deep bottom, surrounded by lofty hills. Part of 
its massive walls still remain at Caerleon. The road proceeded 
hence to a station on the banks of the river Tibia {the Taaf), which 
it crossed, and continued its course to the town of Bovium, which is 
supposed to have stood at Ewenny, and to that of Nidum, the name 
of which appears to be preserved in that of Neath. A shorter stage 
than the two last brought the traveller to the town of Leucarum, 
the name of which is again preserved in the village of Llychwr, 
on the borders of the counties of Glamorgan and Caermarthen. 
Another stage conducted him to the more important town of 
Maridunum, finely situated on a beautiful river. Its site is 
occupied by the modern town of Caermarthen. f Twenty Eoman 
miles further west was a station, which was probably of too little 
importance to have a name of its own, as it is simply designated 
in the Itinerary as Ad Vigesimum, which we may translate " at 
the twentieth milestone." Its site is supposed to be the spot now 
called Castle Flemish. The traveller next arrived at the town of 
Menapia, represented by the modern city of St. David's, on the point 

* A large portion of the buildings of Isca seem to have been standing in the 
latter part of the twelfth century, when Giraldus wrote. He speaks of splendid 
palaces, a gigantic tower, public baths, a theatre, temples, subterranean buildings, 
aquseducts, or sewers, and he remarks the ingenious method of warming the houses 
by means of hypocausts : " Erat autem haec urbs antiqua et autentica, et a 
Romanis olim coctilibus muris egregie constructa. Yideas hie multa pristinae 
nobilitatis adhuc vestigia ; palatia immensa aureis olim tectorum fastigiis Romanos 
fastus imitantia, eo quod a Romanis principibus primo constructa et sedificiis 
egregiis illustrata fuissent ; turrim giganteam ; thermas insignes ; templorum 
reliquias ; et loca theatralia muris egregiis partial adhuc extantibus, omnia clausa. 
Reperies ubique, tarn intra murorum ambitum quam extra, aedificia subterranea, 
aquarum ductus hypogeosque meatus. Et quod inter alia notabile censui, stuphas 
undique videas miro artificio consertas, lateralibus quibusdam et praeangustis 
spiraculi viis occulte calorem exhalantibus." — Girald. Carnb., Itiner. Cambrice, 
lib. i., c. 5. Recent discoveries of considerable interest, made on the site of Isca, 
have been described by Mr. John Edward Lee, of Caerleon, in a quarto volume 
entitled, " Delineations of Roman Antiquities found at Caerleon," and in a 
supplementary volume, entitled ii Description of a Roman building and other 
remains lately discovered at Caerleon." 

*j* The Roman walls of Maridunum were partly standing in the time of Giraldus 
Cambrensis, who says: "Est igitur hsec urbs antiqua coctilibus muris partim adhuc 
extantibus egregie clausa."— Itin. Camb., lib. i., c. 10. 



138 THE ROMANS. [chap. iv. 

of the promontory called by Ptolemy Octopitarum Promontorium. 
This was one of the ports from which ships passed over into 
Ireland. 

From Burrium, a branch road turned off to the north-east, and 
carried the traveller towards the mountains of the interior of 
Wales, until he reached, at the foot of lofty hills, a town of no 
great magnitude, named Gobannium, which is supposed to have 
occupied the site of the present town of Abergavenny. Thence, 
returning eastwardly, he entered a fine open country surrounded 
with hills, in the centre of which was a town of much larger 
dimensions, which probably, from that circumstance, was called 
Magna. Its site is still to be found at Kenchester, near Hereford, 
where its tesselated floors are found in digging. The traveller 
here joined the direct road which had proceeded from Ariconium, 
through the rich country now forming the county of Hereford, to 
Magna, and thence it continued its course northwardly to Bravinium* 
a Boman town, supposed to have stood on the banks of the Teme, 
near the village of Leintwardine. The road proceeded thence 
to Uriconium, or Wroxeter, on the Severn, and so continued its 
course northwardly. But the traveller might at Uriconiu m take the 
north-eastern road, which has been followed before, to Kutunium, 
the modern Bowton, or Buy ton, from whence another branch road 
carried him first to a town named Bovium, and, at a later period, 
Banchorium, which latter name seems to be preserved in that of 
the modern village of Bangor on the border of Flintshire, and 
thence to the great city of Deva, the station of the twentieth 
legion, the interesting remains of whose labours are still found at 
Chester, on the Dee. 

Deva, as may be supposed from its importance, both in a 
military and in a commercial point of view, was the centre of an 
extensive system of roads. One of these proceeding westwardly, 
carried the traveller first to Varse, which stood at the modern 
Bodfari, the pass through the range of mountains which bound 
the Vale of Clwyd, and then to Conovium, a town, of which the 
remains are found at Caer-hun in the vale of the Conway, at 
the northern foot of Snowdon. Another stage carried him to 
Segontium. If the traveller had taken the western road from 
Deva, at the end of the first stage, he would have reached the 
town of Condate, supposed to be Kinderton in Cheshire. Here 
he joined the northern road from Uriconium, and proceeded by 



chap, iv.] TOWNS IN THE NORTH-EAST. 139 

it to Mancunium, now Manchester, and to the important town of 
Coccium, the site of which is found at Bibchester, celebrated for 
its Roman antiquities. The next town on this road was near the 
sea, and was called, no doubt from the river on which it stood, 
Ad Alaunam. Its site is now occupied by Lancaster. Eoads 
from this town and from Coccium met at Bremetonacae, which 
has been placed at Overborough in Lancashire. Thence, in one 
direction, the road continued straight to Bronovacse, and so 
forwards to Luguballium. The other road turned into the lake 
district, and proceeded first to the town of Galacurn, supposed 
to have stood at or near Kendal, then to Alonse, which has 
been identified with Ambleside, at the head of Windermere, 
thence to Galava, which is supposed to have occupied the site of 
the modern town of Keswick, and so on to Glanoventa and the 
coast towns at the entrance of the Sol way. 

From Coccium a road led eastwardly to the coast, where a port- 
town named Portus Sistuntiorum is supposed to have occupied 
the site of the town of Freckleton in Lancashire. Eastwardly 
from Coccium this road passed over a ridge of hills on the borders 
of Yorkshire, where, in one of the passes, was a station named 
from them Ad Alpes Penninos, to a town apparently of some 
importance called Olicana, now Ilkley in Yorkshire, from whence 
there was a road direct to Isurium, and another by Calcaria to 
Eburacum. Another road from Olicana led the traveller back to 
Mancunium, which also was the centre of several roads. One of 
these led eastward to Cambodunum, which seems to be rightly 
placed at Slack in Yorkshire, whence branch roads proceeded 
to Calcaria and to Danum. We will return, however, by the 
southern road to Condate, whence the road proceeded by another 
Mediolanum, which is placed at Chesterton in Staffordshire, to 
Eteocetum, or Wall, on the north-western road. Hence a road 
proceeded south, through an intermediate station, of which the 
name is lost, to the town of Salinse, remarkable then for its salt- 
works and its salt-baths.* Its site has still the same celebrity, 

* In a very curious Latin tract on the marvels of Britain, attached in manu- 
script to the pretended history of Nennius, and as old, no doubt, as the earlier part 
of the twelfth century, we have an account of a warm bath at Wich, or Droitwich, 
the walls of which were built of tiles and stones, and in which the bather always 
found the water of the temperature he wished : " Tertium miraculum ; stagnum 
calidum quod est in regione Huich, et muro arnbitur ex latere et lapide facto, et in 



UO THE ROMANS. [chap. iv. 

and is called Droit wich. Ptolemy, at a much earlier period of 
the Roman rule, mentions a town called Salinas, which he seems 
to place in the south of Lincolnshire ; but this may possibly be 
an error of his copyists. The Salinee of which w'e are speaking 
was a place of importance, on account of its salt trade, and several 
Roman roads are still traced from it ; one of these led eastwardly, 
by another town called Alauna, now Alcester, on the river iVlne in 
Warwickshire, crossing the river Avon at Stratford-upon-Avon. 
Another road led southerly, from Salinae to a town of which the 
name is lost in the ancient Itinerary, but which we can hardly 
doubt occupied the site of the modern city of Worcester. This 
last place stood on the verge of the iron district, and seems to 
have been distinguished by its forges, as Alauna was by its 
smiths.* The road next crossed the Avon at a station named, 
from the river, Ad Antonam, and so continued its course to 
Glevum. The station on the Avon was the first stage in 
proceeding from Glevum to Alauna, and so to Benonae and 
Ratae, and to Lindum. The road by Salinas and Eteocetum 
was also continued northerly, to a town called — also, no doubt 
from a river — Ad Trivonam, supposed to have stood at Bury, in 
the parish of Bramston in Staffordshire. Thence the road pro- 
ceeded to Derventio, which occupied the site of the hamlet of 
Little Chester on the Derwent. The road now entered the great 

eo vadunt homines per omne tempus ad lavandum, et unicuique sicut placuerit illi 
lavachnmi sic fiat sibi secundum voluntatem suam; si voluerit lavachrum 
frigiduin, erit, si calidum, calidum 6111.'" 

* A very curious legend relating to the destruction of this town, is given in the 
life of St. Egwin, the founder of Evesham, in Capgrave's " Nova Legenda Angliae." 
The inhabitants, we are told, were an arrogant race, given to every kind of luxury. 
" Erat namque juxta Eovesham ad octo milliaria castrum Alnecester, regale tunc 
mansum, cujus loci habitatores quanto rerum opulentia et temporalium abundantia 
affluebant tanto magis guise et luxuriae dediti, studentes avaritiae et cupiditati 
misericordia Dei se indignos efficiebant." — They were principally workers in iron, 
and when the saint came to preach to them, in contempt of his doctrine they beat 
upon their anvils with a great noise. — " Et cum castrum illud veluti nemoribus 
undique consitum conflandi ferrum locus esset aptissimus, et fabris et ferri exclu- 
soribus maxime repleretur, gens incredula incudes ferreis malleis tanto strepitu 
continue percutiebat, ut beati viri sermo non audiretur et a castro recedere cogi- 
taretur." — Upon this, he addressed his prayers to Heaven, — " contra artem fabrilem 
castri illius dominum imprecatus est." — And the town was immediately destroyed. 
" Et ecce subito castrum ipsum terra absorbuit, ita quod novo super veteri qualiter- 
cumque reaedificato usque in hodiernum diem in constructione novarum domorum in 
fundamentisantiqua sedificia reperiuntur.j Nunquam enim postea in loco illo aliquis 
artem fabrilem recte exercuit, nee aliquis earn exercere volens ibi vigere potuit." 



chap, iv.] TOWNS IN THE MIDLAND DISTRICTS. 141 

mining district of the mountains of the Peak, and conducted the 
traveller to the town of Lutudarum, now Chesterfield, where the 
metals were brought to be transported to the south or the north. 
The road continued its course thence through the town of 
Morbium, supposed to occupy the site of the modern Temple- 
borough in Yorkshire, to Legiolium, and so on to the city of 
Eburacum. 

The central districts of Roman Britain appear to have been 
traversed in every direction by cross roads. The traveller, in his 
return to the south, when he reached Eteocetum, might turn by 
the great road south-eastward towards Londinium, till he reached 
Tripontium, whence he turned off, by Benaventa and Isannavaria, 
south-westward to the town of Brinavae, which is believed to have 
stood at a place called Black Ground, near Chipping Norton, 
where considerable remains are found. The country he now 
entered was thickly populated, and seems to have been covered 
with small towns and elegant villas. Two of the former stood 
near together at Bicester and Alcester, in Oxfordshire. The 
latter is considered to be the Roman iElia Castra, the next station 
on this road, which proceeded thence over Ottmoor to Dorocina, 
which is identified with Dorchester in Oxfordshire. Six Roman 
miles hence the road passed the Thames to a station which, if we 
could suppose the number in the old Itinerary was wrong, might 
be the post on Sinodun Hill, which has been celebrated for its 
antiquities ever since the days of Leland,* otherwise we must 
place it at or near Wallingford. The Itinerary of Richard of 
Cirencester calls it Tamesis. Hence the road proceeded direct 
to Calleva, but the Itinerary mentions no intermediate station. 

The traveller from the metropolis passed through this city on 
his way to the western extremities of the island. From Calleva 
he had a choice of two routes; one led him to the southern 
Venta, or, as it was called, from the tribe in whose district it 
stood, Yenta Belgarum, an important town, represented by the 

* " From Walingford to Sinodune a mile and a half. This place is wonderful 
dikid about, and stondith on a hille in Barkshir, hanging over the Tamise. It is 
yn by estimation half a mile. And withyn it hath beene sum toune, or, as the 
commune voice sayith, a castelle in the Britannes tyme, defacid by lyklihod by the 
Danes. At this tyme it berith very plentifullye both barley and whete, and 
numismata Romanorum be ther found yn ploughyng. About this Sinodune 
beginnith the fiuteful vale of Whitehorse." — LelancVs Itin., vol. ii., p. 14. 



142 THE ROMANS. [chap. iv. 

modern city of Winchester. Hence the same road proceeded to 
the post of Clausentum, now Bittern, on the Southampton Water, 
from whence he might sail over to the Isle of Victis, or Wight. 
Between Venta and Clausentum was a small town or station 
called Ad Lapidem.* Another road proceeded westward from 
Venta to the town of Brigis, or Brige, supposed to have stood at 
or near Broughton, in Hampshire, and soon after leaving this 
place the traveller approached the commanding fortifications of 
Sorbiodunum, surrounding the summit of a bold hill in the midst 
of a valley, and now called Old Sarum. The other road from 
Calleva ran direct by a town called Vindomis, supposed to have 
stood near Whitechurch, or at St, Mary Bourne, over the eastern 
part of Salisbury Plain to Sorbiodunum. The main road, leaving 
Sorbiodunum, proceeded to a town called Vindogladia, the traces of 
which are believed to be visible on the Dorsetshire Downs, near 
the Gussages, in the neighbourhood of Blandford. The next 
town of importance was Durnovaria, now Dorchester, but there 
appears to have been an intermediate station, the name of which 
is lost. The road now passed nearer the coast, and, after a long 
stage in which there were probably some intermediate stations 
the names of which are not known, reached the town of Mori- 
dunum, placed by some at Honiton, and by others at Seaton, and 
then pursued its course to the western Isca, called, from the 
British tribe which inhabited the district, Isca Dumnoniorum, a 
rich and important city on the borders of the mining districts. 
Its representative is the modern Exeter, remarkable for the 
number of Roman antiquities which have been from time to time 
dug up in it. The road now made a bend southward to avoid the 
wilds of Dartmoor, crossed the river Durius (the Dart), where 
there was a station, and there appear to have been others where 
the road crossed the rivers Tamara (the Tamar), Voluba (the 
Fowey), and Cenia (the Fal), on its way to the extremity of 
Cornwall. This was a wild country, and perhaps thinly inhabited. 

* This place, which no doubt received its name from some remarkable monu- 
mental stone which was standing in the time of the Anglo-Saxons, was still known 
by its Roman name in the time of Bede, who tells us how the two young 
brothers of Oswald, king of Wight, were carried thither to be concealed from their 
enemies — perhaps among the ruins of the ancient town : " Ubi cum delati essent 
in locum qui vocatur Ad Lapidem, occulendos se a facie regis victoris credidissent." 
— Bed. Mist. Ecc, lib. iv., c. 16. The memory of the monument that gave name 
to the Roman station, seems to be preserved in its present name of Stoneham. 



chap, iv.] THE BATHS OF AQILE SOLIS. 143 

The extensive and rich district between Sorbiodunurn and 
Glevum was covered in every direction with extensive and magni- 
ficent villas, marking it out as the most fashionable part of the 
island. In its centre stood a city remarkable for its splendid 
edifices, its temples, its buildings for public amusement, and 
still more so for its medicinal baths. For this latter reason it 
was called Aquae Solis, the Waters of the Sun, and for the same 
cause its representative in modern times has received the name of 
Bath. Eemains of the Koman bathing-houses have been dis- 
covered in the course of modern excavations. Among its temples 
was a magnificent one dedicated to Minerva, who is supposed to 
have been the patron goddess of the place. * From inscriptions 
found at different periods, it appears that military commanders, 
high municipal officers, and other persons of rank, frequented 
this city for the benefit of its waters, and, perhaps, to mix in its 
fashionable society. 

As might be expected, Aquae Solis was the centre of many 
roads, which communicated with every part of the island. One 
road went northwardly to Corinium [Cirencester), whence the 
traveller might proceed across the island to Lindum [Lincoln), or 
he might go to Glevum [Gloucester), and the towns on the 
Severn., or he might turn eastward towards London. The road 
from Corinium to Aquae Solis continued its course southwardly 
from the latter place to another bathing town called Ad Aquas, 
and now known by the somewhat similar name of Wells. Here 
the road separated into two branches, one of which proceeded to a 
town called, from the river on which it stood, Ad Uxellam, now 
Bridgewater, and thence to Isca [Exeter) ; the other led by a 
town of some importance named Ischalis, now Ilchester, to 
Moridunum on the southern coast. The traveller, who would 
proceed direct from Londinium to Aquae Solis, followed the western 
road till he reached the town of Spinee (Speen), where he turned 
off by a branch road which led him by the towns of Cunetio, the 

* The temple of Minerva, at Bath, is mentioned by Geoffrey of Monmouth 
(Hist. Brit., lib. ii., c. 10), and it was, perhaps, standing in his time. The 
ruins of it were found in the course of excavations for the foundations of a new 
Pump Room, at the close of the last century. A magnificent volume on the 
Roman antiquities of Bath, was published by Samuel Lysons, and forms a part of 
his Reliqidce Romano-Britannicce, Leland (Itin., vol. ii., p. 34) describes a 
considerable number of Roman sculptures then (in the time of Henry VIII.) 
built up in the town-walls of Bath. 



144 THE ROMANS. [chap. iv. 

site of which has been traced, by Roman antiquities found there, 
at Folly Farm, near Marlborough, and Verlucio, which, for similar 
reasons, has been fixed at Highfield, in Sandy Lane, near 
Heddington, to Aquae Solis. From Aquae the same road was 
continued to a station on the Avon called Ad Abonam, or Abona, 
which seems to be correctly placed at Bitton, and thence to 
another post on the banks of the Avon, where it enters the 
Bristol Channel, thence called Ad Sabrinam, and believed to have 
stood at Sea-Mills, a short distance from Bristol. Hence was the 
trajectus, or passage, across the estuary, and the traveller landed 
on the opposite coast at a station called Ad Trajectum, supposed 
to have stood on a spot now called Severn-Side. He now 
entered upon the great road through Wales, called still by the 
Welsh the Sarn Helen, or road of Helen, from a notion that a 
Roman empress of that name caused it to be made. A short 
stage brought him to a strongly fortified town, named Venta, and 
often, to distinguish it from other towns of the same name in the 
island, Venta Silurum. Its walls are still seen at Caerwent. If 
he liked he might proceed hence to Isca (Caerleori), and so along 
the southern road, which is called by some old writers the Via 
Julia, to Menapia; but his direct road lay by Burrium (Usk), and 
Gobannium (Abergavenny), whence the Sarn Helen is distinctly 
traced across the mountains to the Luentinum of Ptolemy, which, 
from remains that have been discovered at Llanio in Cardiganshire, 
seems to have been an important post, and thence in a direction 
parallel to the western coast up to Conovium and Segontium. 

One road only remains to be noticed. When the traveller was 
at Clausentum, on the Southampton river, he might have returned 
eastward along the coast. The first stage on this road carried 
him to Portus Magnus, the extensive and massive walls of which 
are still standing at Portchester. The next stage brought him to 
Regnum, a large town, represented by the modern Chichester. 
Where the road passed the river Avon was a station, probably a 
mere posting place, called, from its distance from Regnum, Ad 
Decimum, but of which no traces are left to mark its site. The 
road then carried him to the important port of Anderida, which, 
there can hardly be a doubt, is Pevensey, a place remarkable for 
its imposing remains of Roman buildings. A road went hence 
across the w T eald to Noviomagus and Londinium, having a station 
in the midst of the forest, which from it was called Silva Anderida. 



chap, iv.] DUBILE AND RUTUPI^E. 145 

The coast road, after leaving Anderida, proceeded to a post, or 
station, on theLymne river, named Ad Lemanum, and then, running 
across the land to avoid the low marshes on the coast, about ten 
miles beyond it reached the Portus Lemanis, at the place now called 
from it Lymne, where so many interesting discoveries have recently 
been made.* The road next passed behind Folkestone, where, 
though not mentioned in the Itinerary, there was probably a small 
town ; perhaps the elevated entrenchments, now called popularly 
Caesar's Camp, contained a light house or pharos. At the next 
station, Dubrae, now Dover, the pharos itself, within somewhat 
similar entrenchments, is still standing. The road now con- 
ducted the traveller to Rutupise, whence, having thus traversed 
the whole island, and viewed the excellence of its roads, its nourish- 
ing towns, the highly-cultivated plains of the interior, its forests and 
mountains rich in mineral productions and game, he might embark 
and return to Gaul. 

* The account of the recent excavations on this interesting site is given in 
Mr. Roach Smith's " Antiquities of Richhorough, Reculver, and Lymne." 



146 THE ROMANS. [chap. t. 



CHAPTER V. 

A Roman Town in Britain — Its Walls, Towers, and Gates — Materials, and 
Modes of Construction — The Houses — Their Plan, and Arrangement — 
The Tesselated Pavements and Frescoed Walls — Method of Warming the 
Houses ; the Hypocausts — The Baths — Windows and Roofs — Distribution 
of the Houses in Streets — Public Buildings; Temples, Basilicse, Theatres, 
Amphitheatres — The Suburbs and Burial-places — Sanitary Arrangements ; 
Sewers, Rubbish-pits. 

We have seen in the preceding chapter how thickly Roman 
Britain was studded with towns, even if we only reckon those 
marked in the official Itineraries, which have perhaps 
come down to us themselves in an imperfect form. When we 
look, on one hand, at the description of Britain in the anony- 
mous cosmography of the seventh century, where many names 
occur that are not mentioned elsewhere ; and when we consider, 
on the other hand, the numerous sites of Roman towns or stations 
that may still be traced in different parts of the island, which 
are not mentioned in the Itineraries, we are still more struck 
with the picture of Roman Britain as it thus presents itself to us. 
The English reader of the nineteenth century will naturally be 
curious to have some notion of the appearance of these towns, 
and of their comparative magnitude and comforts; and fortunately, 
although much remains to be done by the antiquary in this respect, 
accidental discoveries have furnished us with considerable materials 
for gratifying his wish. 

/ We have no means of ascertaining the periods at which, or the 
circumstances under which, the Roman towns in Britain were 
built. The Roman Camulodunum we know was founded by a 
body of disbanded veterans, and the other towns seem to have 
been built in the same manner by bodies of troops, Romans or 
auxiliaries, as they advanced in the occupation of the island. We 



chap, v.] TOWN WALLS. 147 

learn from the earlier historians, that, though the troops had here 
and there fortified stations — castra or castella, the towns were not 
surrounded with walls. Such was the case with Camulodunum, 
Londinium, and Verulamium. But subsequently — we cannot fix 
the period, though it was no doubt at the time when the towns 
rose into political importance — they were all surrounded with 
walls, and these walls, which were so massive in character that 
in many instances they have outlived sixteen centuries, must have 
formed so prominent an object in the outward appearance of 
the town, that they will naturally first attract our attention. 

The more usual form of the inclosure, following that of the 
Roman camp, was a parallelogram more or less elongated, but in 
some cases, especially in large towns, such as Calleva (Silchester), 
Magna (Kenchester), and perhaps Durovernum [Canterbury), the 
walls inclosed an area of a very irregular form. When the town 
stood on the coast, or on the banks of a large river, there were 
walls only on three sides, the side to the sea or river being open. 
From their ruinous condition in modern times, we are imperfectly 
acquainted with the altitude of the walls of the Roman towns in 
Britain. The walls of Rutupiae (Riehborough), where most perfect, 
are nearly thirty feet high, but this was perhaps an unusual 
elevation. The walls of Gariannonum (Burgh, in Suffolk), where 
they appear to be of nearly their original height, have an elevation 
of only fourteen feet. The great wall of Hadrian was not above 
eighteen or nineteen feet high. The highest part of the wall at 
Lymne is about twenty three feet. At Lymne, the walls are 
about fourteen feet thick ; those at Riehborough are at the bottom 
between eleven and twelve feet thick, and diminish slightly 
towards the top ; while those at Burgh, in Suffolk, are not more 
than nine feet in thickness. 

The walls were supported at the corners, and at certain dis- 
tances along their face, by towers, either square or round. At 
Riehborough, there were round towers at the corners, and two 
square towers at each side wall. The round towers have been here 
so entirely destroyed that their existence was only ascertained by 
excavations. The annexed cut represents the lower part of the 
tower at the south-west angle, as thus brought to light, with a 
part of the adjacent wall. It will be seen that the angle of the 
wall was built first, and that the tower, which, as far as it remains, 
is a solid mass of masonry, was added after. The square towers 

l2 



148 



THE ROMANS. 



[chap. v. 



along the face of the wall seem to have been attached much in 
the same way ; they projected only about eight feet from the wall, 




Wall and Tower at Richborough (Rutupice). 



and were solid to the height of eight feet from the foundation, 
after which they were hollow in the centre, and they were built 
into the main wall at the top. This was probably the case with 
the round towers also. At Burgh Castle the towers are all round, 
and they are singular in their construction. From the foundation 
to about one half their elevation, that is to the height of about seven 
feet, they are entirely detached from the wall, but at that height 
they become enlarged in diameter, so as to join to the wall. 
They consist of solid masonry, with the exception of a hole in 
the centre of the upper surface, two feet deep, and as many wide, 
the object of which is by no means evident. The towers at 
Lymne appear to have been quite solid. The most perfect of them 
is represented in the cut on the next page. It remains about 
ten feet in height, and seems, like those at Richborough, to have 
been built separate from the wall ; the other towers at Lymne 
have been segments of circles, joined to the wall. In other 
instances we find no round towers, but only square buttresses ; 
at Aldborough and York these seem to have been small hollow 
towers. At Caerwent the wall is supported by a series o penta- 



chap, v.] TOWERS AND GATEWAYS. 49 

gonal towers or buttresses, perfectly solid, and built up against 
the wall, and not into it, though they may have been attached 




Tower at Lymne (Portus Lemanis). 

at the top. At York, the large multangular tower which occupied 
one corner of the walls, is still standing. 

Each fortress or town had generally one principal entrance gate 
which, for its importance, was usually called the decuman gate 
{porta decumana). Sufficient remains of the principal gateway have 
been preserved in very few instances in Britain to enable us to 
understand its form, probably because it was often composed, 
more or less, of larger stones, which offered a temptation to 
mediaeval builders. At Lymne, the great entrance gateway stood 
about the middle of the eastern wall. It consisted of two semi- 
circular solid towers, with the gate probably in a curtain between 
them. It was raised upon a solid platform of immense stones, and, 
when recently uncovered, the stones which formed the pavement 
bore distinct impressions, worn by the wheels of the carriages which 
had passed over them. Our engraving represents the ruins of 
this gateway as they appeared after the earth which covered them 
had been dug away. The lower part of the tower on the left was 
well preserved, and the lower course of stones of the other were 
in their place when first opened, but they were soon cleared 
away or covered, and the tower is only represented by a small 



150 THE KOMANS. [chap. v. 

mound of shapeless masonry. The stones, partly displaced, 
which formed the platform, are seen in front ; the stones of the 
gateway were thrown in confusion in a deep hollow behind. 
Some of them appeared by their mouldings to have formed the 
lintels ; one seemed to be the base of a column, and in others 
were found holes still containing masses of lead which had fixed 
the ironwork of the hinges of the gate. On the left is seen the 
wall as it joined up to the gateway tower, The most singular 
circumstance in the structure of this gateway was the manner in 
which the semicircular towers joined the wall. The latter was 
cut off vertically at right angles, and the corner of the tower 
joined the corner of the wall, so that the inner flat surface of the 
tower was in a line with the outer surface of the wall. Thus the 
tower and the wall did not support each other, and if there was 
nothing else to strengthen them, an enemy might have broken 
his way through the point of junction with the greatest ease. 
This, however, is probably to be explained by supposing that the 
gate itself was an edifice built of large blocks of stone, and forming 
the continuation of tbe wall, and that the two towers were only 
facings or supports to it. 

The decuman gate at Richborough was in the middle of the 
western wall, and excavations have shown that it also stood on a 
platform of large stones. The wall adjoining to it has been much 
damaged and broken, but it appears to have been cut through by 
a small opening in its whole height, in which opening a gateway 
was built of larger stones. There are no traces of its having had 
towers as at Lymne. At Pevensey (Anderida), the principal 
gateway seems to have stood at one corner of the angular 
area, and to have had side towers, as at Lymne. The most 
perfect example of a Roman gateway now existing in this country 
is that called the Portway gate, at Lincoln, which is represented in 
our cut. It will be seen at once that this differs essentially from 
those we have been describing, and in fact it is not the decuman 
or principal gate of the Roman city of Lindum, but one of the 
subordinate eutrances. The two actual entrances, one for car- 
riages and the other for foot passengers, are well preserved, and 
the wall, running off inwardly at right angles between them, 
appears to have formed part of the portal buildings, containing 
guard-rooms and other offices. At Colchester, Mr. Roach Smith 
discovered very interesting remains of the buildings attached to 



CHAP. V.] 



ROMAN TOWN GATES. 



151 



one of the gates of Camulodunum. It was the gate on the west 
side of the town, and consisted of a chief entrance for horses and 







life 



Roman Gate at Lincoln (Lindum). 



carriages, and a subordinate archway, apparently on each side, for 
foot passengers. It was protected by advanced bastions. The 
chief entrance was not quite twelve feet wide. The subordinate 
archway on the right hand on entering is preserved in compara- 
tively a perfect state ; the upper part of it is entirely composed of 
long tiles. By the side of it is a room in the form of a quadrant, 
twenty-six feet in length by fourteen in width, entered by a large 
arched doorway, and which, there can be little doubt, was a guard- 
room. At Borcovicus (Homesteads), on the wall of Hadrian, the 
gateways, especially that on the western side, remain in a 
state in which we can easily understand their details. This 
western gateway had two portals or passages, with a square guard- 
room on each side. Its outer face was level with the wall of the 
station, and each portal led through a passage which extended 
the depth of the two guard-rooms, which were entered by doors 
from the passage. At Colchester, the entrance to the guard- 
room was not from the passage, but from the interior wall. "This 
gateway," says Mr. Collingwood Bruce, speaking of the entrance to 
Borcovicus, "as well as the others which have been explored, is, 



152 THE ROMANS. [chap, v 

in every sense of the word, double. Two walls must be passed 
before the station can be entered ; each is provided with two 
portals, and each portal has been closed with two-leaved gates. 
The southern entrance of the outside wall has alone, as yet, been 
entirely cleared of the masonry that closed it. The jambs and 
pillars are formed of massive stones of rustic masonry. The 
doors, if we may judge from the fragments of corroded iron which 
have been lately picked up, were of wood, strengthened with iron 
plates and studs ; they moved, as is apparent from the pivot-holes, 
upon pivots of iron. In the centre of each portal stands a strong 
upright stone, against which the gates have shut. Some of the 
large projecting stones of the exterior wall are worn as if by the 
sharpening of knives upon them ; this has probably been done , 
by the occupants of the suburban buildings after the closing of the 
gateway. The guard-chambers on each side are in a state of 
choice preservation, one of the walls standing fourteen courses 
high. Were a roof put on them, the antiquary might here stand 
guard, as the Tungrians did of old, and, for a while forget that 
the world is sixteen centuries older than it was when these 
chambers were reared." 

Besides these larger gateways, there were posterns and smaller 
gateways, more or less numerous, according to the extent of the 
walls. At Richborough there is a well-preserved postern gate, of 
a peculiar construction, in the middle of the north-eastern wall. 
The gate is covered by an advanced wall, which outwardly has the 
appearance of a large square tower. The entrance is on one side, 
and runs first by the side of the main wall and between it and the 
advanced wall, and then turns at a right-angle through the main 
wall into the inclosure. It appears to have been open to|bhe top, 
without any covering. At Lymne there appears to have been 
several small portals, and some of what were outwardly semi- 
circular towers had small chambers below. 

From the dilapidated state in which the walls of the Roman 
stations in this country now present themselves, we cannot form 
a perfect idea of their appearance when entire. The walls 
of Chester, and probably those of other places, were crowned 
with an ornamental coping, above which perhaps rose battlements. 
There is an illuminate MS. of the Psalter in the British Museum, 
(MS. Harl., No. 603,) which appears to belong to the latter end 
of the Anglo-Saxon period, and in which we find several pictures 




v1>U \ 



CHAP. V.] 



WALLED TOWNS. 



153 



of walled towns, no doubt either copied from much more ancient 
drawings of such objects, or representing the walls as they were 
still seen. In either case, though they are often defective in 
regard to perspective, and the artist, by a conventional mode of 
treating his subject which was common in the middle ages, repre- 
sents the buildings of the interior only by a temple or public 
edifice, these pictures no doubt give us a tolerably accurate 
notion of the appearance which the walls of a Roman town must 
have presented. Our engraving represents a part of one of these 
pictures, in which the mode of representing the Sun (Apollo) is 
peculiarly classical. The serpentine figure in the interior is 
intended to represent water running in two streams from a pond 
or reservoir. The supporting towers, with the exception of those 
of the gateway, are here square, and they all appear to be, like 
those in our Roman remains, solid up to a certain height. The 
diminishing of the gateway towers, as they rise, is also to be 
remarked. The principal gateway at Lymne must, when entire, 
have borne a close resemblance to the one in this picture. 




Sketch of an ancient Town-wall, from MS. Harl. No. 603. 



Another similar gateway is shown in the smaller cut annexed, 
taken from the same manuscript. ■ The supporting towers are 
here round, still solid at the bottom, and terminating at the top 
in the same manner as those of the gateway. The opening at the 
bottom of the tower to the right is probably intended to represent 
a postern entrance, rather than a low window. 

The masonry of Roman buildings in this country is universally 



154 



THE ROMANS. 



TCHAP. V. 



good, and the materials well chosen and well prepared. The 
town walls generally consist of two parallel facings of stones and 
tiles, the interior filled up with a mass of mortar mixed with 
rubble and other materials. The stone for building may be 
generally traced to neighbouring quarries; but if none good 
enough is found in the neighbourhood, it was often brought from 
a considerable distance. Some of the stone used for building at 
Richborough is supposed to have been brought over from Gaul. 
The careful and exact manner in which even the small facing stones 
of the walls are squared, shows them to be the work of excellent 
masons. In general, these facing stones are slightly wedge-shaped, 
the smaller end being placed towards the interior of the wall, which 
seems to have been intended to give them a better hold on the 
mortar. In Hadrian's Wall, the facing stones, which taper 
towards the inner extremity considerably, are remarkably long in 
comparison to the size of the face which presents itself outwardly; 
the latter being usually eight or nine inches by ten or eleven, 
while the length inwardly is as much as twenty inches. This 
was no doubt designed for strength. The part of the stone 
exposed to the weather was cut across what masons call the bait, 
to hinder its scaling off by the lines of stratification. The facings of 
the stones in Hadrians Wall are sometimes roughly tooled, or, as it 
is technically termed, scabbled with the pick ; and in some parts of 
the line this tooling takes a definite form. Sometimes the pattern 
thus formed consists of upright, or nearly upright, lines ; at other 




Facings of Stones, Hadrian's Wall. 



times the stone is scored with waved lines, or with small squares, 
and with other designs. Of the three examples here given, the 
one in the middle, which is usually termed diamond-broaching, is 
the most common. The masons' marks are often found on the 
stones in Roman buildings, and resemble most closely those of 
the masons of the middle ages. Sometimes they consist of a 



CHAP. V.] 



ROMAN BRICKS, 



155 



letter, perhaps the initial of the mason's name ; but they are 
more usually crosses, triangles, and other geometrical figures. 
The annexed cut represents four of the more common masons' 
marks on the Wall of Hadrian. 





i ^)!!!!.!',i',|iK^»y \< a " 

Masons' Marks, Hadrian's "Wall. 

One of the most remarkable characteristics of Roman building, 
was the extensive use of bricks, or, perhaps more properly speaking, 
tiles ; for the latter word, as we now understand it, expresses more 
accurately the form of the Roman building tiles. They are always 
flat, generally from half an inch to an inch, or even two inches, in 
thickness, and the smaller tiles are generally about seven inches 
square. But others are found considerably larger, and these are 
often much longer than broad. The old writers, such as Pliny 
and Vitruvius, give exact directions for the making of tiles, and 
in those found in England the clay has evidently been prepared 
and tempered with great care ; they are most commonly of a dark 
red colour, but in others the colour is much brighter, and tiles of the 
two colours are mixed together in a regular arrangement, no doubt 
for the purpose of ornament. Our cut on the next page represents a 
group of the different sorts of tiles most commonly used in Roman 
buildings in Britain. In front are three ordinary building tiles, 
of different shapes and dimensions ; one, taken from the remains 
of a house found at Dover (Dubrce), has four holes, which had 
been used in some way or other to fix it in its place. The two 
standing behind are flue tiles, for the passage of air or water. 
These are always scored, in patterns of great variety, apparently 
for the purpose of being fixed more tenaciously by the mortar. 



156 



THE ROMANS. 



[chap. v. 



Many of them, for purposes which will be explained hereafter, 
have square holes at the sides. The tile lying flat on the left 




Roman Tiles. 

has its edges turned, or, as it is technically termed, flanged, and 
was used principally for roofing. The other is a ridge tile. 

The ordinary building tiles often bear inscriptions indicating 
the troops or officials, by whom, or under whose directions, the 
buildings were erected. This is especially the case with the 
different legions. Thus at Chester (Deva) the tiles bear the 
name and title of the twentieth legion, leg. xx. v.v. (legio xx 
valens victrix) ; at Caerleon (Isca) and the stations thereabouts, 
and in South Wales, we find tiles with the 
inscription leg. ii. avg. (legio ii Augusta) ; 
and at York (Eburacum) the inscriptions 
on the tiles are leg. vi. vict. (legio vi 
victrix), and leg. ix. hlsp. (legio ix His- 
panica). At Lymne and Dover, on the 
Kentish coast, the usual inscription on 
the tiles is cl. be,., which is supposed to 
mean classiarii Britannici, the marines of 
the British fleet. The inscription on tiles 
found in London are more difficult of inter- 
pretation. They read prb. lon, or ppbr. 
lon, or, as it occurs in one case, p. pr. be. 
This latter form of the inscription occurs on a flanged tile, 
found in excavations in the city, which is represented in the annexed 




Flanged Tile from 
London. 



CHAP. V.] 



ROMAN MASONRY. 



157 



cut. The most probable interpretation is that which explains 
it as proprcetor Britannia Londinii, the Propraetor of Britain at 
Londinium. This inscription has thus a peculiar interest, as 
showing that Roman London was the seat of government of the 
province. 

As stated before, the Romans chose good stones for their 
buildings, and squared them and fitted them together with great 
care, and even where the facings of their walls have been exposed 
to the air so many centuries, if not injured by the hands of man, 
they preserve a remarkable freshness of appearance. But when- 
ever they have been buried by the accumulation of soil, when the 
earth is removed the masonry appears as fresh as if it had been 
the work of yesterday. Such was the case with the town walls at 
Lymne, as well as the lower parts of the walls at Richborough as 
shown in our cut on p. 148. On the walls of Cilurnum, on 
Hadrian's Wall, the marks of the trowel on the mortar are still 
distinctly visible, and our cut annexed shows the regular appearance 
of the masonry at another station on the wall, Borcovicus, as it 
appeared when uncovered. 




Wall at Housesteads in Northumberland (Borcovicus). 



This latter is a very good example of Roman masonry. The 
walls, even in houses, had generally one or two set-off courses of 



158 THE ROMANS. [chap. v. 

stone at the bottom. There were two, as we here see, in the walls 
of Borcovicus, and it seems to have been generally the case on the 
line of Hadrian's Wall. In some instances the second course was 
bevelled off into a moulding. At Richborough, as shown in our 
cut on page 1 48, there was one footing course bevelled oif in this 
manner. In the wall of Hadrian, as we are informed by Mr. 
Bruce, the foundation had been prepared by the removal of the 
natural soil to the width of about nine feet. This excavation was 
at most from fifteen to eighteen inches deep. On the outer and 
inner margins of the ground thus bared, two rows of flags, of from 
two to four inches in thickness, and from eighteen to twenty in 
breadth, were generally laid without mortar. On these lay the 
first course of facing-stones, which were usually the largest stones 
used in the structure. In higher courses the facing-stones are 
uniformly of freestone, but on the ground course a whin-stone is 
occasicnally introduced. The flag-stones of the foundation usually 
project from one to five inches beyond the first course of facing- 
stones, and these again usually stand out an inch or two beyond 
the second course, after which the wall is taken straight up. The 
foundation of the walls at Richborough is formed of two row r s of 
boulders, laid upon, or a very little below, the surface of the 
natural soil, which is a compact pit- sand. At Burgh Castle, in 
Suffolk, the ancient Gariannonum, the massive w T alls were simply 
built upon the plain ground. The chalk and lime of the original 
soil was covered with earth hard beaten down ; upon this were 
laid planks of oak nearly two inches thick, and upon them a bed 
of coarse mortar, on which the first stones of the superstructure 
were placed. Some years ago one of the round towers, under- 
mined by a channel cut by continual floods of rain, was over- 
thrown, and thus the nature of the foundation was shown, the 
form and even the grain of the oaken planks being impressed on 
the mortar. 

The Roman bricks, or tiles, were not used in construction as 
we use them now, to form the mass of the wall, but they were 
built in as bonding courses, or used for turning arches, and for 
various other purposes of ornament or strength. The bonding 
courses of bricks are peculiarly characteristic of Roman masonry 
in this country, as well as on the continent. They are shown, as 
seen at Richborough and Lymne, in our cuts on pages 148 and 
149. In both these localities, the courses consist of two rows 



chap, v.] ROMAN MASONRY. 159 

of tiles ; at Burgh, in Suffolk, there are three rows of tiles 
in each course ; and at Colchester there are three and four rows 
of tiles in a course. Sometimes they are still more numerous. 
In the multangular tower at York there are five rows in a course ; 
and the walls of a building in Lower Thames Street, London, 
discovered in 1848, were constructed entirely of tiles set in 
mortar, without any courses of stones. At Bichborough the first 
bonding course of tiles commences at three feet four inches 
from the surface of the ground at its present level, and about five 
feet from the bottom of the wall ; and they are repeated upwards 
at distances varying from three feet three inches to four feet 
three inches. The distances between the bonding courses vary 
in other places, and they appear not to have been regulated by 
any fixed rule. In some rare instances the rows of tiles went 
through the whole thickness of the wall, but generally they only 
run one tile deep. They are almost always multiplied at the 
angles and turnings of walls. At Bichborough, in the angles, 
there are generally two short courses between each of the regular 
courses. In some instances, more especially in houses and public 
buildings, the angles of the walls are composed entirely of tiles. 
Arches are generally formed of tiles placed in a position radiating 
from the centre. In some instances, large arches and vaults are 
composed entirely of immense masses of tiles placed in this 
manner, as in the fragment called the Jury Wall at Leicester, 
and in the arched gateway already mentioned at Colchester. 

The system just described was the one generally followed in 
Boman buildings in this country, though there are exceptions. 
In the walls of several Boman towns, as at Beculver (Regulbium), 
Silchester (Calleva), Kenchester {Magna), Caerwent (Venta 
Silurum), Chester (Deva), and in Hadrian's Wall and all the 
stations adjacent to it, tiles are not used. It is not possible, 
with our present knowledge, to assign any reason for this 
deviation from the general practice. At Silchester there are 
bonding courses of single rows of large flat stones. At Caerwent, 
where the walls are faced with limestone, there are four bonding 
courses of red sandstone, which when fresh would seem like tiles. 
Similar variations are found in regard to the stone masonry. 
The w 7 alls at Chester were formed of large squared stones, and 
must have had a very noble appearance. The walls of Burgh 
Castle and Silchester, and those of Bichborough, in the interior, 



160 THE ROMANS. [chap. v. 

were faced with flints. At Silch ester the flints were placed in 
what is popularly called herring-bone work. The small remains 
of walls at Kenchester also exhibit herring-bone work. Variations 
like this arose no doubt from fashion or caprice which prevailed 
in particular districts, or was adopted by certain masons. The 
herring-bone masonry is often found in Roman buildings; and 
was seen in its perfection in the numerous houses brought to 
light by the excavations of Mr. Artis at Castor (Durob?ivce). 

The mortar employed by the Romans possesses several pecu- 
liarities ; and we learn from the directions of Vitruvius, that the 
composition of it was attended to with great care. It strikes the 
ordinary observer by its extreme strength and durability ; he will 
break with much greater ease the stones with which the wall is 
faced than the mortar which holds them together. As we find it 
in Britain, the Roman mortar is generally composed of lime, 
pounded tiles, sand, and gravel, more or less coarse, and even small 
pebble stones. These ingredients vary in their quantities, but 
usually the lime and pounded tiles predominate, which is the 
cause of its extreme hardness. Occasionally, as at Silchester, 
Caerwent, and Kenchester, the pounded tiles are omitted, and, in 
common buildings, mortar of an inferior description is used, com- 
posed merely of sand and lime. At Richborough, the mortar 
used in the interior of the wall is composed of lime, sand, and 
pebbles, or sea-beach ; but the facing-stones throughout are 
cemented with a much finer mortar, in which pounded tile is 
introduced.* 

* fC The tenacity of the mortar which was used, forms an important element in 
the strength of the whole fabric. That which is in use now is generally spoiled, 
from a variety of circumstances. The prevailing practice is, first of all, to slack 
the lime by pouring a quantity of water upon it when lying in a heap ; in most 
cases this does not sufficiently pulverise it; it is then mixed with any earth bearing 
the least resemblance to sand, and the two are worked together very imperfectly 
with a shovel. The mortar thus made often stands and hardens, so as to require 
to be once and again mixed with water, and worked up before it is used. It thus 
becomes quite impoverished ; and after all, for the convenience of the mason, it is 
employed in so dry a state, that the stone soon takes all the moisture from it, and 
it becomes little better than powder. The gigantic railway operations of recent 
times have driven men out of the beaten track, and compelled them afresh to 
discover the Roman method of preparing mortar. On the authority of engineers 
well acquainted with the Roman Wall, I am enabled to state, that the mortar of 
that structure is precisely similar to the grout and concrete of the railway mason 
of the present day. Specimens of the ancient and modern grout are before me, 
and there cannot be a doubt as to the identity of their preparation. The following 



chap, v.] ROMAN MASONRY. 161 

The mode in which the wall was constructed seems to have 
been as follows. The facing- stones were first built up to a certain 
height, and set in mortar of a finer and better description. Then 
fresh liquid mortar was poured in in large quantities in the space 
between, heaps of rubble or stones were cast in with it, and the 
whole soon hardened into a solid mass. In some instances, the 
stones of the interior of the wall are placed in layers, and are 
arranged with considerable precision. The interior of the walls 
at Lymne is composed chiefly of the hard stone of the neighbour- 
hood, which has been thrown into the mortar in rough pieces as 
quarried. In the Wall of Hadrian, whin-stones, as the material 
most abundant in the district, were " puddled in " amongst the 
mortar to fill up the interior of the wall. When this had been 
done, more courses of facing-stones were built up, and then the 
interior was filled in in the same manner, and when the whole 
w : as finished, it formed a solid, compact mass. In the walls at 
Richborough, and at other places, we trace a number of small 
holes on the face of the walls, which were probably made to 
support scaffolding. 

In some parts of the Roman walls in Britain we observe irre- 
gularities, which seem to have arisen from the accidental deficiency 
of particular kinds of materials. In the pharos at Dover, when 
the masons ran short of the large tiles which are so plentifully 
employed in its construction, they hewed pieces of the Folkestone 
rock into the form of tiles, and used them instead. In other 
instances, we find roof or other tiles used instead of building tiles. 
An instance will be seen in our engraving of the tower at 
Lymne, on p. 149, where, at the bottom of the wall, on the left, 
tiles with turned -or flanged edges are used along with the plain 
flat tiles. 

is the mode in which the railway engineer prepares his mortar. The lime, in the 
state in which it comes from the kiln, is first ground to powder, and is then mixed 
with sand and gravel, and chippings of stone. The purposes for which the mortar 
is required, indicate the coarseness and quantity of the intermingling gravel. 
"When wanted as concrete, to form, independently of other materials, the founda- 
tion of some heavy structure, stony fragments of larger size are mingled with the 
lime than when the mortar is to be used to cement chiselled stones, or even than 
when wanted to constitute, with rubble, the interior of a wall. The mixture of 
pounded lime and gravel, when made, is not mingled with water until the moment 
of application to the work for which it is required, but it is then intimately united 
with an abundant quantity of it. When used as concrete, the mass will, in three 
hours, have solidity sufficient to bear the weight of a man, and in about three 
days it will have acquired a rock-like firmness." — Bruce' ] s "Roman Wall" p. 86. 

M 



162 



THE ROMANS. 



[chap. v. 



Having thus examined the walls, with their towers and gates, let 
us pass through the latter, and survey the interior. A town consisted 
then, as now, of its private and its public buildings, the former of 
which would naturally vary much in form and magnitude, according 
to the caprice as well as the quality of those for whom they were 
built. The discovery of the buried city of Pompeii first threw 
any considerable light on the domestic arrangement of Roman 
houses, yet difference of climate, and many other causes 
existed in this island which should make us cautious in applying 
to Roman houses in Britain the rules which we know were 
observed in Italy. The only instance with which we are 
acquainted of a small separate house in a Roman town in this 
country, is one recently discovered at Lymne, in Kent, a plan of 
which is here given. This house, which stood north and south 




Plan of a House at Lymne {Portus 



(the semicircular projection looking due south), was about fifty 
feet (east and west), and thirty feet in the transverse direction, 
exclusive of the semicircular part and the eastern recess. The walls 
evidently remain only to the level of what was originally the floors, 
and we have no indication of the position of doors or windows ; but, 
from an examination of the motion that must have been given 
to the ruins by the ancient landslip which reduced them to their 




(mm m 









chap, v.] ROMAN HOUSES. 163 

present condition,* it is probable that this house stood on the south 
side of the street at the entrance of the principal gateway, and 
therefore that the entrance-door of the house stood in its northern 
wall, which was supported by buttresses. The arrangement of 
this house was very simple, for it seems that it consisted of four 
rooms of about the same dimensions. We have no means of 
ascertaining whether it had any upper story, but there seems 
little doubt that it was a detached house. The accompanying 
engraving of Roman foundations laid open at Aldborough in 
Yorkshire, clearly represents a long row of houses, though they 
are by no means easily explained. The corner to the left appears 
to have been a little shop, and the other rooms in a line w T ith it 
may perhaps have served the same purpose. 

It is a question of much doubt whether the Eoman houses in 
this country were built of stone and brick up to the roof, or whether 
they were only raised a little above the floor, to support a super- 
structure of wood. It is a remarkable circumstance that, in 
most of the numerous houses and villas which at different times 
have been discovered and examined, the walls are found remaining 
about as high, or very little higher, than the floors, and that they do 
not terminate in a broken line as though the walls had been thrown 
down, but in a regular level through the whole building. We 
must, however, take into consideration, on the other hand, the 
probability £hat the upper walls would, in the middle ages, be 
gradually carried away for materials down to the ground, yet, 
even in this case, we should expect sometimes to find the walls 
broken away more irregularly, and some of the materials of the walls 
scattered about. Some instances have certainly occurred, espe- 
cially in the larger country villas, where the walls remain at a 
greater elevation in some parts than in others, and in which they 
have evidently been broken away. Perhaps the safest conclusion 
at which we can come is, that in houses of people of wealth and 
importance the walls of at least some of the principal apartments 
were of masonry, while in the more ordinary houses the masonry 

* At some period, long after the Roman town at Lymne had been ruined and 
deserted, an extensive landslip took place on the site, which is easily explained by 
geologists, the consequence of which was that a great part of the Avails has been 
overthrown, and much of the interior appears to have been entirely defaced and 
destroyed. The house, of which the plan is given above, had suffered less than 
most of the other buildings, and although the walls were in part dislocated, it was 
easy to restore them in the plan. 

m2 



164 THE ROMANS. [chap. v. 

of the walls rose only two or three feet above ground, and some- 
times not so much, and that they supported a superstructure of 
timber. In exposed districts, and more especially in the north, 
houses of stone were no doubt more common. Mr. Roach Smith dis- 
covered a Roman house in the neighbourhood of Hadrian's Wall, 
the walls of which, built of stone, are still standing to an elevation 
above the doors and windows, the openings of which remain.* 

Generally, however, the only parts of a Roman house which 
remain perfect are the floors and substructure, which therefore 
will naturally first attract our attention. We invariably find that 
in a certain number of the rooms of a Roman house in Britain 
the floors were supported, not on the solid ground, but upon a 
number of short thick columns, arranged in regular rows, with 
narrow passages between them. These formed what were called 
the hypocaust (from a Greek word signifying literally fire or 
heat underneath) ; it was the Roman method of warming a house. 
These pillars were generally formed of piles of square tiles ; 
sometimes, as in a building found at Inverness in Scotland, 
described in Stuart's " Caledonia Romana," in one found at 
Wroxeter (Uriconium), and described in the ninth volume of the 
" Archaeologia," and in other instances, the columns supporting 
the floor were of stone, or stone columns mixed alternately or 
irregularly with brick pillars. Mixed with these supporting pillars 
were rows of flue tiles, especially near or against the walls, and 
flue tiles of various forms were built into the walls above, so as to 
distribute the hot air over the building. These flue tiles have 
square holes on one side to admit hot air or smoke, from the fires 
of the hypocaust. Sometimes, but this is of rarer occurrence, in- 
stead of these pillars, the floor was supported on parallel walls 
of masonry, with passages in which the fires were made, and 
through which the heat was conducted. The fire was made under 
the arch in the outer wall below the level of the ground, and 
appears to have been approached from without by the servants 
who had the care of the fires, in the same manner that we now 
approach the stoves of hot-houses. Similar arches in the founda- 
tions of the walls communicated between the hypocaust of one 
room and that of another. In our plan, just given, of the house 
at Lymne, the two rooms on the right had hypocausts with pillars 

* An engraving of this house is given in Mr. Roach Smith's Collectanea 
Antiqua, vol. ii v p. 188. 



CHAP. V.] 



HYPOCAUSTS. 



165 



of square bricks, the lower parts of most of which were found when 
the covering of earth was first cleared away. At i i, were the 
passages, built in rougher masonry than the walls, which led to 
the fire-places under the two arches indicated in the walls. 
Three other arches, through the wall which divided these two 
apartments, all neatly turned with the large flat tiles, formed 
the communication between the hypocausts. Another similar 
arch in the western wall of the more northerly of these two 
rooms communicated with the parallel walls of rough masonry 
which formed a hypocaust under a part of the room marked b. 
The small recessed room at the south-east corner, supported by 
much thicker columns of bricks than those of the other hypocaust, 
may perhaps have served as the kitchen, or cooking- room. The 




Hypocaust at Cirencester (Corinium). 

arrangement of the hypocaust will perhaps be better understood 
by the annexed cut of one of these structures found in a Roman 
house at Cirencester, which we give because it presents several 
peculiarities. One of the supports here is a stone pillar, another 
stands upon a stone base. Between the last row of pillars and 
the side- wall, is a row of upright flue- tiles, and in the wall itself 
are two apertures, intended no doubt to convey the hot air into 
the upper part of the building. In this instance the hypocaust 



166 THE ROMANS. [chap. v. 

only extended under one-half of the room, the pavement of the 
other half resting upon a prepared solid foundation.* The room 
marked b, in the plan of the house at Lymne, seems to have had 
a similar arrangement in this respect. The more we examine 
the remains of Roman buildings in Britain, the more we are 
struck with the care and ingenuity displayed in providing for 
internal warmth, as well as for other comforts. In many instances, 
the subterranean hypocausts are elaborately arranged. The 
excavations in the large villa at Woodchester, in Gloucestershire, 
at the latter end of the last century, brought to light a hypocaust 
which is represented in an engraving in our next Chapter. It 
consisted of parallel walls, pierced with an elaborate system of flues, 
formed of ridge-tiles placed two and two together, so as to form 
pipes. Rows of flanged tiles were placed along the sides of the 
walls, thus making hollows through which the hot air was 
distributed equally over the whole interior surface of the walls of 
the apartment. 

In laying the floors, a layer of large flat tiles was first placed 
on the columns of the hypocaust. Flanged tiles were not unfre- 
quently used for this purpose, with the flanged edges sometimes 
turned upwards and sometimes downwards, perhaps according to 
the caprice of the builder. Sometimes there w r ere two layers of 
tiles, and in some cases, where tiles probably were not at hand, 
thin flag-stones were used instead. Upon these were laid a mass 
of fine mortar or concrete, generally about six inches thick, in the 
surface of which the pavement was set. This pavement was 
variously constructed according to the richness and elegance of 
the house, and to the purposes for which the apartment was 
designed. In rich houses the principal floors were beauti- 

* We should avoid giving refined and unnecessary explanations where very 
simple ones are sufficient. In Messrs. Buckman and Newmarch's work on the 
Roman remains at Cirencester, from which our cut of the hypocaust is taken, the 
circumstance of the hypocaust extending under one half only of the floor, is 
explained by considering that " the two parts of the room were intended for use at 
different seasons of the year, and that it was the triclinium of the house ; that 
portion over the hypocaust being the triclinium kybernum, and the other 
end the triclinium cestivum, for use in warm weather." It seems to me very 
easy to understand how a room may be perfectly well warmed by a hypo- 
caust on one side only, but I do not perceive how this arrangement would make 
one half of the room warm and the other half cold, which I presume is the meaning 
of this explanation. If there were in summer no fire in the hypocaust, it would 
be quite as cool over it as on the other side of the room ; and if there were a fire 
in it, no part of the room could be cool. 



chap, v.] THE ROOMS OF HOUSES. 167 

fully ornamented with figured pavements, composed of very 
small cubes or tesserae of different colours. In less expensive 
houses, the ornament was plainer, and formed of much larger 
tesserae. Ordinary floors were usually paved with tesserae of brick, 
which we should perhaps rather call small tiles, one or two inches 
square. In a few instances a mere floor of flag-stones has been 
found laid regularly over the mass of concrete. 

It is quite impossible, in the condition in which the foundations 
of the Roman houses are found, even to offer a probable con- 
jecture on the use or objects of the several rooms which we are 
enabled to trace by them. We can have little, doubt that the 
rooms warmed by hypocausts were those in which the masters of 
the house were accustomed to assemble together, or receive 
visitors. In the larger country villas it has been observed that 
the rooms with hypocausts lie often on the southern part of 
the building, and it has therefore been assumed, that they were 
the winter apartments, while the summer apartments were placed 
with a more northern aspect, and were without hypocausts ; but 
this observation does not hold good in all cases. There is one 
peculiarity which is observed almost invariably in Roman houses 
in Britain ; one room has always a semicircular recess or alcove, 
and in some, but rarer, instances, more than one room possesses 
this adjunct. It is not omitted even in the little house at Lymne, 
of which we have given a plan. There is generally, as in the 
example just cited, at each side where it joins the room an 
advancing piece of wall or pier, as though a curtain, or something 
of that kind, had been drawn across to separate the recess from 
the room. In a suburban villa, which has lately been partially 
excavated in Leicester, a short pillar was found lying upon the 
tesselated pavement of the semicircular recess, which seemed to 
have served as an altar, or to have supported a small statue, and 
it has been conjectured that this recess served as the sacrarium, 
or place of domestic worship, where the image of the patron god 
of the family was placed. A Roman house of any extent generally 
presents to view such a numerous assemblage of crowded and 
very small rooms, that we are led to believe that some of the 
transverse walls have only been raised to a slight elevation above 
the floor, and that they served for seats or other purposes in the 
middle or at one side of the room. In one or two instances low 
projections have been observed in the interior of the wall of a 



168 



THE ROMANS. 



[chap. v. 



room, which have every appearance of having been intended for 
stone seats. Drains and gutters are often found in and under the 
floors, for carrying off water, and these are sometimes ingeniously, 
and even elaborately, constructed ; generally of tiles ; pieces of 
leaden pipe have also been found, formed by turning a thin plate 
of lead rounded into the form of a cylinder. 

Many writers have concluded hastily, that every house with a 
hypocaust was a public bath ; but it required very little observation 
and comparison to expose this error. In some instances, but more 
especially in country villas, we find baths belonging to the house, 
generally in a room which seems to have been set aside for them. 
Two such baths were observed in the villa excavated at Hartlip, 
in east Kent. One of these, which is represented in the cut 
annexed, was of very small dimensions, being only three feet six 




Bath in a Villa at Hartlip, Kent. 



inches in length by three feet one inch in width, and about two 
feet deep. At the bottom, on one side, was a seat six inches and 
a half wide. A moulding of plaster ran round the floor and up 
the angles, and the interior was originally covered entirely with 
stucco, painted of a pink or red colour, as appeared by portions of 
it still remaining. From the size of this bath, it must have been 



CHAP. V.] 



BATHS m ROMAN HOUSES. 



169 



either intended for children, or for the partial immersion and 
ablution of grown-up persons : but the presence of the seat would 
lead us to suppose it was for children. Adjoining was another 
bath, represented in our second cut, of larger dimensions than the 
former. It was six feet two inches in length by fourteen in 
width, but it was only fourteen inches deep. Both baths were no 
doubt deeper, when the building was perfect. This bath also 
had a seat extending the whole length of one side, but it was 
composed of hollow flue-tiles, placed lengthways, and coated over 




Second Bath in the Villa at Hartlip. 



with a thick layer of cement ; the sides, as in the former, had 
been stuccoed and painted, and a similar moulding ran round the 
bottom. Both had leaden pipes still remaining, which conducted 
the water from the baths through the external wall of the house. 
There was no pipe or channel of any kind for conducting water 
to either of these baths, so that either hot or cold water must 
have been brought when wanted in buckets or other vessels. A 
room adjoining was probably open to the baths ; a recess in the 
wall of this room is supposed by Mr. Roach Smith to have held a 
cistern for warm water. 

Internally, the walls of the apartments were invariably covered 
with a thick coating of plaster, or stucco, composed of lime, sand, 
and small stones, so tempered as to harden into a very solid and 
firm mass. The surface of this was made perfectly smooth, and 
upon it was laid a very thin coating of fine calcareous cement. 



170 THE ROMANS. [chap. v. 

On this, while moist, the various designs were painted, and the 
whole became so durable, that on the broken fragments we pick 
up among the ruins of the houses and villas in this country, the 
colours often look as bright and fresh as if they had but just been 
laid on. Some of these fragments belong to walls painted of 
a uniform colour ; others are striped, or made to represent 
arabesques and other patterns. Some fragments in the museum 
of Mr. Roach Smith, taken from the site of a large building near 
Crosby Hall, in London, exhibit a sort of decorated trellis-work 
on a red ground, in the divisions of which are stars, or flowers, in 
yellow, white, and dark blue colours, with a man carrying a staff 
and what appears to be a basket ; the whole pattern, man and all, 
being repeated over the face of the wall, and enclosed in a dark 
border, upon which is a stripe of white. Other fragments are 
painted in imitation of coloured marbles. A considerable variety 
of rather elegant patterns were found in the ruins of a Roman 
villa at Chesterford, in Essex, among which were some represen- 
ting portions of the human figure. The most remarkable of the 
latter was the foot of a female, as large as life, with drapery flowing 
round it. In one of the larger rooms of the villa at Combe-End, 
in Gloucestershire, the lower part of the wall remained covered 
with the fresco painting, on which were a row of feet, also as large 
as life, which had belonged to the figures in some grand historical 
painting that had once adorned the walls of this apartment. 

Where we find the openings of doors, they are in general 
narrow, and they appear to have been square-headed, like the 
ordinary doors of the present day. Among the stations on 
Hadrian's Wall, where the materials of the buildings have not 
been so extensively cleared away, ornamental heads of doors and 
windows in stone have been found, and some of them are 
engraved in Mr. Brace's " Roman W T all." We seldom open Roman 
houses of any extent without finding abundant fragments of 
window-glass, so that there can be no doubt that the Roman 
windows were glazed. Many fragments of very thin window glass 
were picked up under the walls of the houses within the Roman 
town of Lymne, where the walls had no doubt been pierced with 
windows above. We have little information on the nature of the 
ceilings and roofs of the Roman houses in Britain. Supporting 
columns, and fragments of ornament and plaster, found in some 
of the villas, seem to show that the more important apartments were 



CHAP. V.] 



ROOFS OF HOUSES. 



171 




Arrangement of Roof Tiles. 



sometimes vaulted ; but it is probable that the ceiling was more 
usually flat. In the midland and southern parts of Britain, the 
houses appear to have been most commonly roofed with tiles, con- 
sisting of parallel courses of flanged tiles, with the flanges turned 
upwards, and the joints covered with 
ridge tiles. This arrangement will 
be best understood by the accom- 
panying cat. In other cases, es- 
pecially in the northern parts of 
England, the houses were roofed 
with slates. In the stations on the 
wall, thin slabs of free-stone slate, 
with nail-holes in them, as well as 
the nails themselves, are found on 
the ground. At Maryport, in Cum- 
berland, when some parts of the interior of the station were 
excavated, it was found that the houses had been roofed with 
Scotch slates, which, with the pegs that fastened them, lay 
scattered about in the streets. In the Roman villas in the south, 
we often find the roofing tiles scattered over the floors of the rooms 
in the same manner. 

We have few opportunities of examining the internal arrange- 
ments of a Roman town, and until the uncovering of Pompeii 
our knowledge on this subject was very limited. Where a modern 
town stands on the site of an ancient town, which is the case with 
most of the more important Roman cities in Britain, it is of course 
impossible to excavate ; and where such is not the case, there have 
usually been so many difficulties to contend with in obtaining 
permission to dig, and raising the necessary funds, that very little 
progress has yet been made. Yet there are many localities in 
this island, where the site of an ancient city of great extent lies 
merely covered with earth, and that not very deep, and in which 
excavations would, no doubt, lead to very interesting results. 
Among the more remarkable of these, we may enumerate Silchester 
(Calleva), Old Verulam (Verulamium), Aldborough \Isurium), 
Ribchester (Coccium), Caerwent (Venta), Wroxeter (Urwoniwm), 
Kench ester (Magna), and some others. Some of the towns on 
Hadrian's Wall, though not so large or magnificent as these 
great cities, appear, from the comparative neglect in which their 
ruins were left, to promise perhaps more than some of the larger 



172 THE ROMANS. [chap. v. 

sites. It has been often assumed by some that the streets of the 
Roman towns in Britain were arranged with great regularity, and 
by others that they w r ere in general identical with the streets of 
the modern towns that occupy their sites ; but both are equally 
erroneous. A variety of excavations in the city of London have 
proved that the principal streets, such as Cheapside, Cornhill, &c, 
are in almost every instance traversed by masses of Roman 
houses underneath. We have learnt from the discoveries at 
Pompeii, that Roman streets were arranged irregularly, and that 
they were in general very narrow. It is probable that even in 
Roman London there were only two or three lines of streets 
through which any kind of carriage could pass, and that the rest 
were only narrow alleys. A small part of the Roman town of 
Cilurnum, at Chesters in Northumberland, has been uncovered, 
and presents us with a curious example of these small alleys and 
houses. A plan of it is given in the accompanying cut. Eight 
apartments are here represented, which belonged to at least two, 
if not to three, houses. Descending a few steps at l, we enter a 
street or alley, three feet wide at one extremity, and four at the 
other. At h, another street runs off at right angles, which is about 
four feet wide. At d, an entrance door, approached by steps, 
leads into the room e, which, as well as the other rooms with 
which it communicates, is paved with thin flag-stones, and has a 
hypocaust underneath. There is one of the semi-circular recesses 
at g. which has an aperture through the wall, perhaps one of the 
fire-places of the hypocausts, though Mr. Bruce tells us that the 
furnace, wirich warmed the suit of apartments, stood near f, at 
the south-eastern extremity of the building. When these hypo- 
causts were first opened, the soot in the flues was found as fresh 
as if it had been produced by fires lighted the day before. In 
the room to the north of that we first entered, at c, was found a 
bath, in good preservation, covered with stucco which was painted 
red. Near it, at b, the exterior wall of the house had been 
broken in, and among the rubbish was found the statue of a river 
god. The pavements had been damaged by the falling in of the 
roof. The steps at d were much worn by the tread of feet, and 
stones had been inserted in place of others which had been worn 
out, which also were partially worn ; hence Mr. Bruce thinks that 
this was a public building of some kind. Outside the circular 
recess, a, there seemed to have been a larger open space than 



chap, v.] ARRANGEMENT OF HOUSES IN STREETS. 



173 



the street first mentioned. A door nearly opposite that at d led 
into the house i, of which two apartments were uncovered, both 
having similar floors and hypocausts. The street h d appears to 



ssS^- 




Plan of Houses at Chesters in Northumberland (Ciluraum). 

communicate by a narrow passage with another transverse street, 
but the ground beyond has not been cleared away. The rooms 



174 THE ROMANS. [chap. v. 

of the house I are in dimension each about twenty-four feet by 
seventeen ; that at e about nineteen feet by fifteen. The walls 
of the latter house had been covered internally with a stucco 
painted dark red. 

At Maryport, in Cumberland, where excavations were made in 
1766, the streets were found to be paved, like those at Cilurnum, 
with large flagstones, which, we are told, " were much worn by use, 
particularly the steps into a vaulted room, supposed to have been a 
temple." The foundations at Aldborough, represented in our plate 
at p. 163, seem evidently to have belonged to a row of houses, 
apparently with shops in front ; but the artist has, by an oversight, 
represented them as parallel to the town wall, whereas in reality 
they are at an angle to it. They have not been excavated to any 
extent backwards ; but there are reasons for supposing that in 
the more important towns, the great dwelling-houses were, as at 
Pompeii, back from the street, and that each was inclosed out- 
wardly w 7 ith small houses and shops. At Durobrivse {Castor), as 
far as we can judge from Mr. Artis's plan, the houses were 
scattered about in no regular order. 

The numerous pieces of sculptured stone which are found about 
the ruins in the remains of Roman towns, show that the houses 
did not want for architectural ornament. Capitals and shafts of 
columns, cornices, mouldings, and other fragments, are frequently 
met with ; but as these materials were in after times much more 
useful, and more easily carried away, than the masonry of the 
walls, it seldom happens that there is a sufficient quantity left to 
enable us to form a notion of the manner in which the building 
was adorned. It is remarkable, also, that these architectural 
fragments, although often very elegant, are seldom of pure style ; 
instead of plain or simply fluted columns, we often have them covered 
with scales, or leaves, or other designs, as if the models had been 
brought from Egypt or India ; and the bases and capitals are 
sometimes profusely ornamented. The same circumstance of the 
utility of the materials caused the public buildings to disappear sooner 
than the dwelling-houses, and there are few cases in which they have 
been distinctly traced out in modern times. Lysons discovered 
so many architectural fragments of the Temple of Minerva at 
Aquas Solis (Bath), that he was enabled to make a restoration of 
the building ; and considerable remains are said to have been 
found, and perhaps still exist under-ground, of the temple of the 



chap, v.] PUBLIC BUILDINGS. 175 

same goddess at Coccium (Ribchester). No doubt, every town 
had its temples, of greater and less magnificence, which were 
filled with the votive altars that are discovered so numerously in 
some parts of the country. A few inscriptions have been found 
recording the building or repairing of such edifices. At Regnum 
(Chichester), a temple was dedicated to Neptune and Minerva.* 
At Condercum, on Hadrian's Wall (Bemvell), an officer stationed 
there " rebuilt from the ground " a temple dedicated to the Deae 
Matres, and to the genius which presided over his troops. f At 
Cilurnum (Ohesters), a temple which was dilapidated through age, 
was rebuilt in the year 221, during the reign of Heliogabalus. j At 
Petriana (Cambeck Fort), a temple to the deities " of all nations," 
which had through age fallen into decay, was similarly restored. § 
Such slabs were generally placed against the walls of the 
building they commemorated, and it was not always thought 
necessary to describe in them the nature of the building itself, 
so that they are now often useless for identification. Yet in some 
instances public buildings are commemorated by name. Thus an 
inscription found at Habitancum (Risingham), commemorates the 
restoration of the gate and walls. || We learn also, from such in- 
scriptions, that at Fjp'mcum(Lanchester), the public baths and basilica 
(or court-house) were built from the foundations in the reign of 
Gordian ; IT that someother buildings (the name is partly obliterated) 
with a basilica and temple, were built on the site of the modern 
Tynemouth ; ** that public baths and a basilica were rebuilt at 
Coccium (Ribchester); ff that the public baths at Lavatrae (Bowes) 
had been burnt down, and rebuilt and dedicated to the goddess 
Fortune (they were probably joined with a temple), under the 
propraetor Virrius Lupus ; J J and that a basilica for riding, which 
appears to have taken some time building, was completed under 

* See the commemorative inscription in our note on p. 29. 

*T MATRIBVS .... TEMPLVM A SOLO RESTITVIT BrUCe's " Wall," p. 140. 

£ TEMPLVM VETVSTATE CONLAPSVM RESTITVERVNT. Bruce, p. 186. 

§ . . . OMNIVM GENTIVM TEMPLVM OLIM VETVSTATE CONLABSVM. Horsley. 

|| PORTAM CVM MVRIS VETVSTATE DILAPSIS. Bruce, p. 331. 

*J[ BALNEVM CVM BASILICA A SOLO INSTRVXIT. LySOnS. 

*„* . . . gyrvm cvm basi et templvm fecit. — Bruce, p. 319, so read by 
Mr. Bruce ; Horsley read it cvrvm ; but on examining this altar, which is in the 
collection of the Society of Antiquarians, with Mr. Roach Smith, I agree with 
him that the true reading seems to be cypvm (for cippum) cvm basi et, &c. 
The stone is much worn in the upper part. 

+ + BALINEVM REFECT . . . ASILICAM VETVSTATE CONLABSAM SOLO RESTITVT*M. 

— Whitaker. 

X + BALINEVM VI IGNIS EX"3TVM. HoImCV. 



176 THE ROMANS. [chap. v. 

Severus Alexander (a.d. 221 — 235).* As well as its basilica and 
public baths, Epiacum (Lanchester) had an arsenal and a building 
for the commanding officer, or governor's lodgings.f 

It seems from these inscriptions that every town of any impor- 
tance had a basilica, or court-house, and public baths, and that 
these were usually placed together, and joined often with a 
temple. In several of our ancient Koman towns, as at Leicester, 
Wroxeter, and, formerly, Kenchester, masses of masonry within 
the town, which it has not been easy to account for, may have 
formed part of these combined buildings. Remains of public 
baths have been found in excavations in some of the Roman 
towns in Britain, as, for instance, at Silchester. Of other public 
buildings we know little. Giraldus Cambrensis speaks vaguely of 
buildings for theatrical purposes at Caerleon, but perhaps he only 
meant the amphitheatre. A theatre of considerable extent, and 
elaborate construction, has been recently brought to light at 
Verulamium (near St. Albans.) J The Romans were everywhere 
passionately addicted to gladiatorial exhibitions, and almost every 
station had its amphitheatre. We need only mention those at Rich- 
borough, Colchester, Silchester, Dorchester, Cirencester, and Caer- 
leon. The amphitheatre at Richborough has been recently excavated, 
and it was then found that it was not, as had been supposed, a 
mere raised circle of earth, but that it had been surrounded with 
walls, and had doubtless seats and passages of masonry. The 
same was probably the case with the other amphitheatres just 
referred to. At Aldborough there are remains of a stadium, and 
perhaps also at Leicester. 

The walls of the Roman towns in Britain varied much in 
extent. Those of Silchester, which are three miles in circuit, 
inclose an area of about a hundred and twenty acres ; those of 
Kenchester inclosed about twenty-one acres ; the walls at Col- 
chester included a hundred and eight acres ; while the walls of 
Lymne inclose only twelve acres, and those of Richborough not 
more than four. It is evident that, in cases like the latter, we 
must consider the fortress as a mere citadel, and suppose that the 
town stood around. In the other instances, the wall surrounded 

* BASILICAM EQVESTREM EXERC1TATORIAM IAMPRIDEM A SOLO COFPTAM AEDIEI- 

CAVIT CONSVMMAV1TQVR. L) S011S. 

*T PRINCIPIA ET ARMAMENTARIA CONLAPSA RESTITVIT. LySOIlS. 

X An account of this discovery was published in a pamphlet, entitled " A 
Description of the Roman Theatre of Verulam," by Mr. R. Grove Lowe, of 
St. Albans, under whose care the excavations were carried on. 



chap, v.] THE SUBURBS. 177 

the town. In many cases, however, the population became gra- 
dually too large to be contained within the inclosure, and then 
suburbs were built outside. Most of the stations along Hadrian's 
wall appear to have consisted of an inner town and an outer town. 
There are reasons for believing that the walls of Eoman London 
were erected at a later date, when that city had reached its full 
extent, and hence we cannot trace that it had any suburbs on the 
northern side of the Thames ; but it had apparently a large one on 
the southern bank. Eburacum had been probably fortified earlier, 
and it had increased more rapidly, and accordingly we find that it 
had extensive suburbs at each of its gates. That on the side 
towards Calcaria (Tadcaster) extended, as we are informed by 
Mr. Wellbeloved, as much as a mile along the road, and the one on 
the road to Isurium (Aldborough) was nearly as long. Extensive 
suburbs have also been traced round Caerleon, and it is the tra- 
dition of the place, that the ancient city tilled a circuit of nine 
miles. Considerable suburban buildings have, in like manner, 
been discovered at Leicester. 

The suburbs were probably not built so closely as the town itself, 
but consisted often of detached villas. They were also the site of 
the cemeteries, and the tombs generally stood along each side of 
the road. The principal sepulchral monuments of the Eoman 
citizens of London appear to have stood outside Ludgate, where 
inscribed stones have been found ; but we know also that there 
was a large cemetery at the outside of Bishopsgate. At York, 
the burial places were without all the gates, but the road leading 
to Calcaria has been called emphatically, on account of the great 
number of interments found along it, the Street of the Tombs. 

Before we quit the Roman towns, we must notice one of their 
important features, the sanitary precautions. We have seen how 
careful the inhabitants were to keep themselves warm and dry, 
and they seem not to have neglected cleanliness. Traces of pipes 
and drains are found in their houses, which were no doubt in- 
tended to carry off superfluous water and filth. We have no 
means of ascertaining how the streets were drained, but we seldom 
carry on excavations long on the sites of Roman towns without 
meeting with large and extensive sewers. A large drain of this 
description was found outside the town at Hunnum, on the Wall 
(Halton-Chesters). " My informant," Mr. Bruce tells us, "crept 
along it for about one hundred yards ; the bottom of it was filled 



178 



THE ROMANS. 



[chap. v. 



with hardened mud, imbedded in which were found a lamp and 
many hone pins, such as those with which the Romans fastened 
their woollen garments." The Roman sewers at Lincoln are still 
in good preservation, and are constructed of excellent masonry. 
They are covered with large flags of stone. A smaller transverse 
drain brought down the waters from each house. The accom- 
panying cut, representing a part of the interior of one of these 
sewers, with the mouths of two transverse drains, is taken from 
a sketch by Mr. Roach Smith, who walked up it about a hundred 




^r— 



Interior of a sewer at Lincoln {Lindvmi), 

yards. Mr. Smith tells me that the sewers of the city of Treves 
(the Roman Treviri), still in use, bear a close resemblance to 
those of Lincoln, and they are probably of Roman origin. 

As far as we can judge by existing remains, water was not 
conducted into the Roman houses. It was probably brought by 
aqueducts or watercourses to a fountain or conduit in the town, 
whence the inhabitants fetched it in buckets. We learn from 
Bede, how St. Cuthbert was shown the extraordinary Roman 
fountain at Carlisle, which, no doubt, had supplied the citizens of 
Luguballium with water. Giraldus Cambrensis speaks of water- 
courses at Caerleon, but, as his words are somewhat vague, these 
may perhaps have been merely sewers, But on the line of 
Hadrian's wall, we still see the curious watercourse which supplied 
the Roman town of iEsica {Great Chesters), and which was worked 



chap, v.] EUBBISH PITS. 179 

through a tortuous course of six miles. In a similar manner, an 
aqueduct, (or rather two aqueducts,) of considerable extent and 
labour, was constructed to bring the water from a distant stream 
to Epiacum (Lanchester); they delivered their water into a reservoir 
outside the walls, near the south-west corner of the station, and 
there, no doubt, the inhabitants went to take it for their domestic 
purposes. 

One circumstance remains to be noticed with regard to the 
economy of the Roman towns. We have as yet discovered no 
arrangements about the Roman houses for personal easement, but 
close at the outside of Roman towns are found numbers of deep 
and very narrow round wells, which, no doubt, are the remains of 
conveniences for this purpose. The discovery of such wells is the 
sure sign of the proximity of a Roman station. They are 
numerous at Richborough and at Winchester, and have indeed 
been observed in many other places, and they are rich mines for 
the antiquary, from the great number of miscellaneous articles 
they contain. In fact, they appear to have been common deposi- 
tories for refuse of every description, such as animal's bones, broken 
pottery, and a variety of other articles which have been dropped 
in by chance, or thrown in intentionally, and they have hence 
been very properly termed rubbish holes. The earth taken from 
the bottom of those at Richborough, on being examined by an 
experienced chemist, was pronounced to be the remains of sterco- 
raceous matter. These pits are formed so carefully, and some of 
them so small in diameter, and at the same time so deep, that 
we might almost suppose that they had been made with a large 
cheese-scoop. Perhaps they were originally covered with some 
light structure. Some antiquaries, from finding broken urns in 
them, have imagined that these pits were sepulchral, but they 
have probably been misled by erroneous impressions of accidental 
circumstances connected with them.* 

* See a paper in the " Archseologia," vol. xxxii., on such pits, found at Ewell, 
by Dr. Diamond, and another, in vol. xxxiv., on a similar pit found at Stone, Bucks, 
by Mr. Akerman. In the latter it is stated, erroneously, that sepulchral deposits 
were found in the wells at Richborough ; they were carefully examined by good 
antiquaries as they were cut away by the railway excavators, and most certainly 
there was nothing sepulchral about them ; they had literally been receptacles of 
filth and refuse. 



THE ROMANS. [chap. vi. 



CHAPTER VI. 

The Country — Roman Roads, and their Construction — Milliaria : the Roman 
Mile — Bridges — Roman Villas ; Woodchester, Bignor, &c. — Tesselated pave- 
ments, and the Subjects represented on them — Rustic Villages — Agriculture 
and Farming — Country Life ; the Chase — British Dogs. 

With the imperfect view which we have thus been able to obtain 
of a Eoman town in Britain, we see enough of comfort and 
elegance to convince us that the island was then inhabited by a 
population which had reached a high degree of civilisation and 
refinement. Of this we shall find still more remarkable traces 
when we leave the town and proceed into the country. The first 
objects that would there attract attention were the roads, which 
were constructed with such extraordinary skill that even now 
many of the best roads in England are laid upon the ancient 
Eoman foundation. 

Vitruvius has given exact directions for making a road. They 
began, it appears, by making two parallel furrows, the intended 
width of the road, and then removed all the loose earth between 
them till they came to the hard solid ground, and they filled up 
this excavation with fine earth hard beaten in. This first layer 
was called the pavimentum. Upon it was laid the first bed of the 
road, consisting of small squared stones, nicely ranged on the 
ground, which was sometimes left dry, but often a large quantity 
of fresh mortar was poured into it. This layer was termed 
statumen. The next was called nidus, or ruder atio, and con- 
sisted of a mass of small stones, broken to pieces and mixed with 
lime, in the proportion of one part of broken stones to two of lime. 
The third layer, or bed, which was termed nucleus, was formed 
of a mixture of lime, chalk, pounded or broken tiles, or earth, 
beaten together, or of gravel, or sand and lime mixed with clay. 
Upon this was laid the surface or pavement of the road, which 
was called technically summum dorsum, or summa crusta. It was 



chap, vl] ROMAN ROADS. 181 

composed sometimes of stones set like the paving stones in our 
streets, and sometimes of flag-stones cut square or polygonally, 
and also, probably oftener, of a firm bed of gravel and lime. The 
roads were thus raised higher than the surrounding grounds, and 
on this account the mass was termed agger. 

The result of the above process would be a Roman road of the 
most perfect description ; but we must not suppose that in any 
part of the empire these directions were always strictly adhered 
to. On the contrary, there are few Roman roads existing which 
do not in some way or other vary from them ; some are entirely 
without the nucleus, in others there was no statumen. Never- 
theless, there is always found a sufficiently close resemblance 
between the structure of the old Roman roads as they exist, and the 
directions given above. They are often found in our island in an 
extraordinary degree of perfection ; where they have been used 
to the present time as high-roads, they are naturally worn 
down, and it is only at rare intervals that we can find any 
characteristic to identify them, except it be the extraordinary 
straightness of the course ; but where the course of the road has 
been changed at a subsequent period, and especially where it runs 
along an uncultivated heath, the ancient Roman road often pre- 
sents itself to our view in an imposing embankment for several 
miles together. When they came upon higher ground, the 
Romans were not in the habit of intrenching, but they often 
raised the embankment higher even than in the plain, probably 
as a measure of precaution. Thus, on the summit of the Gog- 
magog hills, near Cambridge, the embankment of the Roman 
road is very lofty and remarkably perfect. They seem seldom to* 
have turned out of their course to avoid a hill, and, in some 
instances, we find the Roman road proceeding direct up an 
acclivity which we should not encounter at the present day. A 
Roman road runs over the top of one of the mountains of West- 
moreland, almost two thousand feet above the level of the sea, 
which is named from it, High Street. 

The roads here described are of course to be looked upon as 
the grand military roads of the empire, those along which the 
lines of the Itineraries are traced, and which formed the direct 
communication between the towns in this island which have 
been enumerated in a former chapter. But there were numerous 
other roads in all parts of the island, such as the Romans 
termed vim vicinales, branch roads, privatce, private roads, agrarice, 



182 THE EOMANS. [chap. yi. 

country roads, device, bye-roads. These were constructed with 
much less labour than the others, yet they were still sufficiently 
good and durable to have left distinct traces down to the present 
time. They were sometimes paved with flag-stones, as is the 
case with one over the hills near Monmouth, where the stones 
are fitted together with care, though they are of all shapes and 
sizes. This, as it has been already observed, was probably the 
usual way of paving the streets of towns. The Roman road 
leading direct from Lymne to Canterbury seems, by old accounts, 
to have been paved in this manner, and it is still, no doubt from 
that circumstance, called Stone Street. The stones themselves, 
in the course of ages, have been carried away for various purposes 
of utility. Other larger roads which seem to have traversed 
nearly the whole island, and which were not constructed in the 
same laborious manner as the military roads, were probably 
intended for commercial purposes, such as those which branch from 
the salt districts of Droitwich, and from the mining districts. 
Antiquaries seem often to have been misled by their dissimilitude 
to the great Roman military roads, to imagine many of these 
to have been British. It is not very probable that the older 
inhabitants of the island, such as Caesar found them, divided into 
separate and hostile tribes, which seem often to have changed 
their boundaries, as they were pressed forwards by other colonies, 
should have been great road-makers. 

We know that the Roman roads were constructed and regulated 
at an enormous expense, and we learn, from ancient writers, that 
the office of curator viarum was one which implied considerable 
honour. Nearer the centre of the empire, if not in the distant 
provinces, there were from place to place mutationes, or places 
where post-horses might be taken, which were termed agminales, 
and which were conducted by veredarii, or postilions. The 
keepers of these stations were called statores. It was by means 
of these posts that Constantine, the son of Constantius Chlorus, 
made his rapid and celebrated progress from the east to join his 
father in Britain, and as they appear to have been continued to 
the coast of Gaul, it is probable that they were also established in 
Britain. There were also found by the road side diversoria, 
cauponce, or tabemce diversorice, places of entertainment for man 
and horse, which were kept by diver sores and caupones. Further at 
stated intervals, stood mansiones, the keepers of which, named man- 
cip0$,stopped the passengers to examine their dijplomata or passports 



ghap. vi.] MILE STONES. 183 

Through all the immense systems of great roads which thus run 
over the whole Roman empire, the distances were marked out 
with the greatest care, and at the end of each millepassus, or Roman 
mile, was erected a milliary column or milestone, (milliarium), 
with an inscription, indicating the distance from the next town. 
These milestones usually consisted of a large plain cylinder of 
stone, raised on a hase ; and the inscription stated the name of 
the emperor under whose reign it was erected, so that they were 
probably often changed, in order to honour a new emperor's 
name. After the Romans had departed from the island, these 
monuments were gradually taken for the material, and only a few 
of them have been preserved, which is to be lamented, as they 
would have thrown great light on the Roman topography of 
Britain. The only perfect example known at present in this 
country is one preserved in the local museum at Leicester, and 
its inscription, which is as follows, states that it was set up under 
the emperor Hadrian, at the distance of two miles from Ratse. 

IMP CAESAR 
DIV TRAIAN PARTH F DIV 

TRAIAN HADRIAN AVG 

PONT IV COS IH A RATIS 

II. 

It is a perfect cylinder, three feet six inches in height, and five 
feet seven inches in circumference, and was dug up, in 177.1, by 
the side of the ancient Roman road, called the Foss-way, about 
two miles to the north of Leicester, thus identifying the Roman 
name of that town. There is another with an inscription nearly 
perfect, at Caton, near Lancaster, also erected under Hadrian. 
These milestones have been found more numerously in Gaul, 
and one of them, found near the town of Yic-sur-Aisne, has the 
following inscription, stating that it was raised in the fourteenth 
year of the reign of Caracalla, or a.d. 212, at the distance of 
seven leagues from Soissons, 

IMP CAES 
M AVRELIO AN 

TONINO PIO 
AVG BRITANNI 
CO MAX TRIB 

pot xnn imp ii 
cos in pppro 

COS AB AVG 
SVES8 LEVG 

vn. 



184 THE ROMANS. [char vi. 

It will be seen by this last inscription, that in ancient Gaul, 
as in modern France, they reckoned by leagues, and not, as in 
Britain, by miles. If we had but two consecutive milliaria 
remaining in their places, we should be able at once to solve the 
much debated question of the length of the Roman miles in 
Britain ; but, unfortunately, no such discovery has yet been made. 
We know that the mile consisted of a thousand passus, or paces, 
which, according to D'Anville, was equivalent to 756 French 
toises, or 4834*28 English feet. The English mile is 5280 feet. 
We gain, however, not much in knowing the exact measure of 
the Roman mile, because we cannot place trust in the numbers 
given in the Itineraries. The Roman numerals were easily 
altered by careless copyists, and they are found to be so often 
wrong in the texts of the Itineraries as they now exist, that we 
can place no confidence in them, at all events as far as regards 
Britain, and the only safe method of applying them to the actual 
sites is first to find the traces of the stations, and then compare 
them with the Itinerary. 

One of the most remarkable characteristics of the Roman roads 
is the extraordinary straightness of their course. The great 
military roads may often be traced for many miles without a 
single deviation from the direct line. When there is a deviation, 
if between two stations, it was for some very important reason, and 
may generally be explained by the circumstances of the locality. 
As we have before remarked, hills, even when of considerable 
elevation, presented no obstacle to the course of the road. The 
Roman engineers even drained or filled up marshes, when they 
stood in their way, if there was any advantage to be gained by 
passing across them. We have many proofs that the rivers in 
this country were passed by an extensive system of bridges — it is 
probable, indeed, that a military road seldom passed a river 
without one. Some of the more important Roman bridges 
remained till a recent period, forming the foundation of the 
modern structures which replaced them. Such was the case little 
more than twenty years ago at London, and when the old bridge 
over the Tyne at Newcastle was taken down in 1771, the piers 
were found to be Roman masonry. The foundation was laid 
upon piles of fine black oak, w T hich were in a state of perfect 
preservation. The remains of three bridges are found along 
the line of the Wall. When the old Teign-bridge in Devon- 



chap, vi.] BRIDGES. 185 

shire, by which the Roman road crossed the Teign in its way to 
Totness and Plymouth, was taken down in 1815, the Roman work 
beneath was found in a remarkable state of preservation. It is 
the opinion of Mr. Bruce and other antiquaries that the bridge 
at Newcastle, as well as the others in the Wall district, had no 
arches, but that a horizontal roadway of timber was laid on the 
piers. " The foundations of the piers of three Roman bridges in 
the region of the wall," Mr. Bruce tells us, " still remain; one 
across the Tyne at Corstopitum, one across the North Tyne at 
Cilumum, and another across the Rede- water at Habitancum ; 
an examination of these has induced me to believe that they, at 
least, had no arches. The piers are of a size and strength 
sufficient to withstand the thrust of the waters without the aid of 
an arch ; and in one at least of these cases, the requisite spring 
of the arch would have raised the road to an inconvenient height. 
An experienced mason, who examined carefully the ruins of the 
bridge at Habitancum, told me that he observed that all the 
stones which encumbered the spot were square, none of them 
having the shape of stones used in building arches. It is certain 
that in the mediaeval period the Newcastle bridge had a road of 
timber." We cannot doubt, nevertheless, that many Roman 
bridges had arches. Mr. Roach Smith has pointed out a Yerj 
fine semicircular arched bridge over the little river Cock, near its 
entrance into the Wharfe, about half-a-mile below Tadcaster, on 
the Roman road leading southward from that town (the ancient 
Calcaria), which he considered as undoubtedly Roman. The 
masonry of this bridge is massive, and remarkably well preserved, 
and the stones are carefully squared and sharply cut, and 
on some of them the mason's mark, an R, is distinctly visible. 
The roadway was very narrow. The Saxons seem to have pre- 
served carefully the bridges they found in existence, though they 
probably built few themselves ; and I am inclined to believe that 
most of the bridges in this country at the time of the Norman 
conquest were Roman. The preservation of these ancient 
bridges was considered of so much importance, that the charge of 
them was often thrown upon the hundred, or county. Thus, at 
Cambridge, the county was bound to see that the bridge was 
kept in repair, and certain lands were allotted for the expense of 
the repairs ; and I have very little doubt that the bridge which 
in the thirteenth century was in such a ruinous condition, that 



THE ROMANS. [chap. vi. 



people's carts used to fall over into the river, was the ancient 
bridge of the Roman town of Camboricum.* It was probably 
from a broken Roman bridge, the remains of which seem to 
have been visible in the time of Leland, that the town of 
Pontefract, in Yorkshire, (jpons fractus) derived its name. 

The objects, however, which must have struck the traveller 
most forcibly as he passed along the road between one town and 
another, were the numerous country villas or mansions, many of 
them magnificent palaces, covering as much ground as a whole 
town. Modern discoveries have shown us how marvellously the 
country was covered, especially in some of the southern and 
midland districts, with these great rural residences, which will be 
better understood by the reader, if we describe the relative 
positions of two or three known groups. Perhaps the largest 
and most magnificent Roman villa yet discovered in England is 
that at Woodchester, in Gloucestershire. Woodchester is situated 
in a beautiful valley in the high grounds bordering the vale of 
Gloucester, on the bank of a stream which runs down thence into 
the plain to join the Severn, and at about four miles from the 
Roman road from Corinium (Cirencester) to the trajectus Augusti 
(Aust Passage) across the channel. It was about twelve miles 
from the town just mentioned, and the same distance from 
Glevum (Gloucester). If we left Corinium by the ancient road 
just mentioned, we should first have seen on a hill to the right, 
between this road and the road to Glevum, a villa of some 
extent, the remains of which have been discovered at Dagling- 
worth, about three miles to the north-west of Cirencester. Close 
to the road on the left, under a hill about five miles from 
Corinium, was a Roman station, or building, at a place now 
called Trewsbury. About two miles further, on the right-hand 
side of the road, stood another handsome villa, which has been 
excavated to some extent at Hocberry, in the parish of Rod- 
mar ton. Two miles more brought us to a villa on the opposite 
side of the road, and, like the last, close to it, which has been 

* Dicunt quod reparatio et refectio magni pontis Cantebrigiae pertinent ad 
comitatum Cantebrigiae, et quidam de comitatu praedicto tenent terras geldabiles qui 
debent pontem reficere quando pons indiget reparatione et refectione. Dicunt 
etiam quod pons praedictus debilis est, fractus, et dissolutus, ita quod carectae mag- 
natuum et aliorum ibidem transitum facientes cadunt in aqua, ita quod tarn 
homines quam equi emergunt ad magnum periculum et dampnum ibidem transi- 
entium. — Hundred Rolls, vol. ii. ; p. 392. 



chap, vi.] KOMAN VILLAS. 187 

discovered in the parish of Cherington. About six miles further, 
on the same side of the road, extensive buildings have been 
found at a place called Kingscot, which belonged either to a villa 
or to a station. About half-way between the two last places, a 
bye-way probably led to the villa at Woodchester, among the 
hills to the right. Eight or nine miles from Kingscot, at a place 
called Croom-hall, remains of another villa, or mansion, have been 
found, close to the left-hand side of the road, where it passes 
over an eminence. A few miles carried the traveller hence to 
the shores of the Bristol Channel. If we had taken the road 
from Corinium to Glevum, we should first have seen the villa at 
Daglingworth, on the hill to the left, and then, on the right hand, 
and near the road, about seven miles from Corinium, we should 
have seen a fine villa, which has been discovered at Combe-end. 
On the other side of the road, in a fine valley among the hills, 
about half-way between the road and Woodchester, was another 
rich villa, the remains of which have been discovered at a place 
called Brown's Hill. In the vale of Gloucester, at the foot of the 
hills, about four miles to the west of Woodchester, stood another 
handsome villa, or perhaps a small town, at Frocester. All these 
places are within a very small circuit, and have been discovered 
accidentally, so that there may be others within the same compass. 
Let us now turn to Somersetshire, and take as a centre the 
ancient town of Somerton, situated on a Roman road leading from 
Ilchester in the direction of Glastonbury. If we follow this road 
towards Ilchester, two miles from Somerton, two extensive Roman 
villas have been traced in the parish of Kingsdon, one near 
the Roman road, the other a little to the east, on the bank of a 
small stream called the Cary. Further east, on the other side of 
the stream, a third villa has been found at Lytes Cary. These 
three villas are included in a distance of about a mile. In the 
parish of Hurcot, joining Somerton to the east, two villas have 
also been found, one near Somerton, the other about three-quarters 
of a mile to the north-east. Barely half a mile to the south-east 
of the latter is another extensive Roman villa at Charlton 
Mackrel; and in the opposite direction, somewhat more than 
half a mile from the Hurcot villa, is another at Copley. To 
the east of this, in the parish of Littleton, close to the Roman 
road just mentioned, a group of several Roman villas has been 
found. Proceeding along the road northwardly, at about four 



188 THE ROMANS. [chap. vi. 

miles from Somerton, we arrive at Butleigh Bottom, where a 
Roman villa of considerable extent has been traced. Villas are 
found in equal abundance within two or three miles to the west of 
Somerton, among which the most extensive is that at Pitney, 
covering an acre and a half of ground, and containing a very- 
remarkable pavement. It may be remarked that the walls of the 
villas in this district abound in herring-bone work. We might 
give similar examples of the profusion with which the Roman 
villas were scattered over the country in Hampshire and Oxford- 
shire. In the latter county, two noble villas stood within 
a mile of each other, in the parishes of Stonesfield and North 
Leigh, near the Roman road now called the Akeman Street. 
The splendid Roman villa at Bignor, in Sussex, among the hills 
to the north of Arundel, close by the Roman road from Regnum 
{Chichester) to London, has a situation somewhat like that of 
Woodchester. Over the hills, between two and three miles to 
the north-west of Bignor, a villa has been traced near the church 
at Duncton. To the north-east, by the side of the Roman road to 
London, at about two miles distant from Bignor, traces of Roman 
occupation are found, and about three miles further, in the parish 
of Pulborough, there has been a Roman station. Rather more 
than six miles south of Bignor, the discovery of a Roman sepulchre 
at Avisford seems to indicate the vicinity of another villa ; about 
six miles eastwardly from this place a villa has been found in 
the parish of Angmering : and another villa has been found on 
the coast at Bognor, about seven miles to the southward of 
Avisford.* 

While we are thus speaking in general terms of villas scattered 
over the country so thickly, few will imagine what an immense 
pile of building a Roman villa usually was. I will, therefore, 
proceed to describe one of the largest in this country, that of 
Woodchester, which was opened partly under the superintendence 
of Mr. Lysons during the years from 1793 to 1796. Nothing 

* The villas of Woodchester and Bignor formed the subject of very splendid 
publications by Lysons. An account of the Pitney villa and pavement was pub- 
lished by Sir Richard Colt Hoare, in a thin 8vo volume, printed in 1832. A 
description of the North Leigh and Stonesfield villas was printed in 1836, by 
Mr. Henry Hake will, in a similar form. The great collection by Lysons contains, in 
addition to Woodchester and Bignor, accounts of villas at Littlecote in Wiltshire, 
Frampton in Dorset, Withington in Gloucestershire, Horkstow in Lincolnshire, 
and some others, all illustrated with magnificent plates of pavements, &c. Accounts 
of other villas will be found in the various volumes of the Archseologia of the 
Society of Antiquaries. 



CHAP. VI.] 



VILLA AT WOODCHESTER. 



189 



could be finer than the site which the Roman proprietor had here 
chosen for his residence. A square level platform, with a little 




Plan of the Roman villa at Woodchester. 

narrow gorge on the north, down which a small 
stream ran into the larger stream that washed the 
foot of its eastern declivity, was backed by a hill which 
sheltered it from the damp winds of the west. It was 
also sheltered from the east winds by a hill which 
rose on the opposite side of the stream. The main 
valley ran north and west, and, curiously enough, 
what appears to have been the principal apartments, lay with a 
north-westerly aspect. The arrangement of this extensive build- 
ing will be best understood by the accompanying plan.* The 

* The rooms in which mosaic pavements were found, are shaded in the plan. 



190 THE ROMANS. [chap. vi. 

apartment marked 1, was a room nearly fifty feet square. It lay 
under the churchyard of Woodchester, and the sextons, in digging 
graves, had at various periods, during more than two centuries, 
brought to light and destroyed portions of its splendid pavement. 
This consisted of a central circular compartment of about twenty- 
five feet in diameter, consisting of an outer border formed of a 
Vitruvian scroll, edged on each side by a guilloche, and enriched 
with foliage proceeding from a mask of Pan having a beard of leaves. 
Immediately within this border was a wide circular band containing 
representations of twelve different animals, on a white ground, with 
trees and flowers between them. Within this circle was a smaller 
band, separated from it by a guilloche and a border of acorns, 
and containing representations of birds on a white ground. Among 
them was a figure of a fox. On the southern side was a figure of 
Orpheus playing on the lyre. This band was bounded internally 
by a twisted guilloche, and within was a central hexagon about 
ten feet in diameter. This centre had been entirely destroyed 
long before the time of opening the villa byLysons, but some old 
drawings, made on former partial openings, show that the field 
was covered with figures of fish and sea monsters. I am inclined 
to think that it was a little lower than the rest of the pavement, 
and formed the floor of a shallow reservoir for water. The 
circular compartment we have been describing was inclosed in a 
square frame, consisting of twenty-four compartments, enriched 
with a great variety of guilloches, scrolls, frets, and other orna- 
ments, edged on the inside with a braided guilloche, and on the 
outside with a labyrinth fret, between a single fret and a braided 
guilloche. In the four angular spaces between the great border 
of this gorgeous pavement and the great circular compartment were 
the remains of female figures, two of which appear to have 
occupied each space ; they had evidently been naiads. At the 
four inner corners of the square were found sufficient indications 
that they had once been occupied by columns, which had no doubt 
supported the roof, which was probably vaulted. It was found 
that the pavement was supported by a hypocaust, or system of 
flues, intended to warm the room. 

On each side of this large apartment was found a passage, 
twenty-nine feet four inches long by seven feet and a half wide, 
the entrance into which was by a door three feet wide. The 
floor of these passages was paved with coarse mosaic work, 



chap, vi.] VILLA AT WOODCHESTER. 191 

ornamented with a double labyrinth fret of a dark bluish-grey on 
a white ground, surrounded by a plain red stripe. Curiously 
enough, at the extremity of the eastern of these passages, part of 
another pavement was discovered laid over it, a foot above its 
level, formed of much coarser materials than the original one, 
and very ill executed ; the design being merely stripes of white, 
blue, and red, very irregularly put together. It had evidently 
been an alteration of a late period. 

To the southward of these two passages, were, on each side 
of the great apartment, two rooms, of which that nearest to the 
great apartment on each side had a mosaic pavement, of the 
same degree of coarseness as the passages, but of a simple and 
elegant design, consisting of a mat of three colours, dark grey, 
red, and white, surrounded by a double red border. 

These were the first discoveries made, and they led to a more 
extensive investigation. On the south of the great apartment a 
gallery was discovered, a hundred and fourteen feet in length, 
by ten in width, except where it passed the wall of the great 
pavement, where it was only nine feet wide. The mosaic was of 
the same degree of coarseness as that of the other passages, 
but it was ornamented with a great variety of patterns, consisting 
chiefly of labyrintbs, mats, and stars, for the most part in a good 
taste, forming square compartments, with a single twisted guilloche 
and two plain red stripes running round the whole of them. 
Those parts of the wall of this gallery which remained on the 
south side were two feet thick, and beyond it towards the south 
was a hard terrace floor. As the pavement of the gallery was 
destroyed at the centre, and no foundations of the wall remained 
there, it was impossible to ascertain if there had been any 
entrance from this gallery immediately into the room of the 
great pavement. 

Excavations were now commenced at the end of the southern 
gallery running from the large apartment, and the room to the 
north of that marked No. 2, was found. This apartment, which 
had been a square of twenty- two feet ten inches, appeared also to 
have been new floored, for on excavating to the depth of three 
feet, the workmen came to a floor of very hard cement or terrace, 
on removing some of which a small fragment of mosaic pavement 
was discovered, six inches below the level of that floor. The 
whole of the terrace floor was then removed, not without much 



192 THE ROMANS. [chap. yi. 

difficulty, on account of the extreme hardness of the cement. 
Under it were found four fragments of a mosaic pavement, which 
had been partly broken up. They were in a very good style, and 
the design had consisted of five octagonal compartments, con- 
taining figures on a white ground, surrounded by a double 
labyrinth fret ; immediately within which, on the north side, 
was a scroll of flowers, with a vase in the centre. In the 
remains of the compartments, at the north-west and south-east 
corners, were fragments of Bacchanalian figures. The octagonal 
compartment at the south-west corner was entire, and contained 
figures of two boys holding up a basket of fruit and leaves, 
with the inscription bonvm eventvm, under them, in large 
capital letters. The compartment at the north-east corner had 
been nearly destroyed, but the letters biinii o . . . remained, 
evidently for bhnh coltte, the Greek H being used for the 
Latin E, of which there are other examples. The inscription, 
when entire, would thus be, Bonum JEventum bene colite, a 
recommendation to worship well Bonus Eventus, one of the 
twelve deities who presided over the affairs of husbandry ."^ The 
walls of this room were two feet thick, formed of stone, roughly 
hewn, and remained to the height of about three feet on every 
side. Fragments of stucco, painted in fresco, lay scattered 
about. On the west side the wall was double, with a space of 
six inches between, to secure the room against humidity. 
Another system of flues for warming was found under this room, 
the passages being about four feet deep. 

The room adjoining, No. 2, had no tesselated pavement, but 
the same hypocaust of flues extended under it, and outside the 
wall was the fire-place communicating with them. The aperture 
under the wall, where the fire seemed to have been placed, was 
formed by bricks, one foot five inches long, one foot wide, and two 
inches thick ; it was one foot eleven inches wide at the bottom, 
and six inches at the top, where a sort of arch was formed by the 
edges of the bricks gradually advancing beyond each other. This 

* So we are informed by Varro, de Re Rustica, lib. i. There was a temple of 
Bonus Eventus at Rome, and Pliny mentions statues of this deity, which repre- 
sented him holding a patera in the right hand, and an ear of corn and a poppy in 
the left. He is represented in the same manner on the reverse of a coin of Titus ; 
and the reverse of one of Geta has a female figure holding a dish of fruits in her 
right hand ; and ears of corn in her left, with the inscription boni eventvs. 



chap, vl] VILLA AT WOODCHESTER. 493 

fire-place had walls one foot eight inches thick on each side ; they 
were four feet two inches apart, and projected outwards four feet 
from the wall. A considerable quantity of skulls and bones of 
animals, chiefly sheep, were found near the fire-place. 

To the south of the room marked 2, was another apartment, 
twenty feet long, by twelve feet eight incheswide, which contained a 
mosaic pavement, of a tasteful design. It consisted of a circular 
compartment, between two oblong ones, united together by a single 
twisted guilloche, with a border formed by a labyrinth fret, 
between which and the wall was a considerable space filled up 
with plain red tesserae, rather more than an inch square. The 
circular compartment was nearly destroyed, but it had probably 
contained a figure. This floor was also supported by a hypocaust, 
and it had a fire-place outside the wall, near which was found a 
coin of Magnentius. 

Two rooms were subsequently opened, between the room No. 
$, and the large room No. 1, and the one adjoining to the latter 
had a tesselated pavement, consisting of two square compart- 
ments, filled with labyrinths, and united together by a braided 
guilloche, on the outside of which w T ere two narrow red stripes. 
The parts of the building next explored were the large rooms, 
numbered 9 and 10, and the room to the left of the latter. One 
of them was thirty-eight feet square ; another was thirty-eight 
feet by forty-six ; and the third was thirty-eight feet by fifty-one. 
The walls remained in several places, to the height of four feet 
from the foundation. Those on the north side were two feet two 
inches thick, and were in some places lined with brick- work ; the 
south walls were one foot ten inches thick. These walls were in 
several places plastered on the outside, and painted of a dull red 
colour. Many fragments of the stucco which had covered the 
walls internally, and had been painted in fresco, with various 
colours, were found among the rubbish. Some of them were 
painted with large capital letters, which had formed parts of 
inscriptions. These rooms appeared to have had tesselated 
pavements, which had been broken up ; and several slices of 
marble of different sorts, but chiefly foreign, were also found. 
These had, perhaps, been employed to encrust the walls, a 
practice which we know prevailed among the Romans. Some of 
these pieces of marble were not more than a quarter of an inch 
thick. Parts of two stone columns, and fragments of statuary, 



194 THE ROMANS. [chap. vi. 

were subsequently found in the room No. 10, and in the room 
adjoining it to the left ; on digging trenches across, several inner 
walls, two feet four inches wide, were discovered running in the 
directions indicated by the light outlines in our plan. These walls 
were covered with large flat stones on the top, which did not rise 
higher than the foundations of the other walls, so that it is 
probable that they supported a floor, and that their object was to 
prevent humidity in the apartment above. Among the ruins of 
this room were found quantities of tesserae, many fragments of 
the figured Samian ware, and of glass vessels, and portions of 
two statues in Samian marble, which seem to have belonged to 
figures of Diana Lucifera and Meleager. At the east end of the 
room, No. 9, great part of an arch was discovered, about three 
feet below the surface of the earth, which was doubtless connected 
with the substructure of the floors. 

From the autumn of 1795, to the summer of 1796, the 
excavations were carried on more to the south, and the great 
court, b, was traced, with the various apartments round it. On 
the west side was a mass of buildings, containing twelve rooms, 
which had been entered from the court by a vestibule, between the 
rooms marked 18 and 19. In this vestibule a fragment of a 
beautiful group, in white marble, of Cupid and Psyche, was 
found, which had evidently been copied from the same model as 
a group of sculpture engraved in the Museum Florentinum. 
The walls in this part of the building were of stone, with 
bonding courses of brick ; and among the ruins were found thin 
slabs of stone, of an irregular hexagonal form, which, perhaps, 
belonged to the roof. Pieces of stags' horns, several of them 
sawed off at the ends, were also found here ; and several human 
bones were met with in the buildings on the north and west 
sides of the great court. Many coins, chiefly in small brass, 
were found here and in various parts of the building. 

A wall extended along the whole length of the south side of the 
great court B,near the centre of which were discovered the foundation 
walls of three rooms, or perhaps of a gateway, with a door on each 
side (No. 21). Here, as in many other parts of the building, the 
walls were destroyed down to the foundation, so that it was impos- 
sible to ascertain the width of more than one of the doorways, 
which was four feet wide. Fragments of large columns were 
found here, which showed that there had been an imposing 



chap, vl] VILLA AT WOODCHESTER. 195 

display of architectural ornament. A little to the west of these 
foundations, and attached to the long southern wall, were the 
remains of a singular building, consisting of two parallel walls, 
three feet distant from each other, connected by two transverse 
walls, having an opening between them. At the bottom of this 
opening was a considerable quantity of coal ashes, and, at the 
west end, at the height of fifteen inches from the bottom, was a 
small flue through the wall. This building is described as pre- 
senting very much the appearance of having held a boiler. 

Considerable remains of buildings were also discovered on the 
eastern side of this great court. A gallery first presented itself, 
marked 24 in our plan, and measuring sixty-five feet eight inches 
in length, by ten feet four inches wide. The entrance from the 
court was eight feet eight inches wide. Another opening in the 
east wall, immediately opposite and nearly of the same dimen- 
sions, led into what appears to have been a court, c, surrounded 
with apartments. In one of these rooms, to the east of the court,, 
there were two parallel narrow walls (fifteen inches wide), running 
the whole length of the room, and square projections from the west 
wall. As these walls rose no higher than the foundation part of 
the other walls, they probably supported a pavement. At the 
north end of this room was found the leg of a statue, of white 
marble, and not far from it was a foundation of square stones, 
which appeared to have been intended as a pedestal. The out- 
ward wall on the east side of this range of building was entire to 
the height of from four to five feet. It was three feet thick, and 
built of stones roughly hewn, with six projections on the outside, 
which were evidently buttresses. We may, therefore, suppose, 
that this was the exterior of the whole building on this side. 

At the north end of the range of rooms of which we are now 
speaking, at No. 22, were found the remains of what Lysons con- 
sidered to be a laconicum, or sweating-room. At the depth of 
five feet below the surface of the ground the excavators met with 
a very hard cement floor, eight feet ten inches wide, and nine feet 
ten inches long. On removing this floor, which was eight inches 
thick, a layer of bricks was discovered under it, which proved to 
be the covering of flues that ran under the floor. The flues were 
two feet two inches in depth, and one of them was longitudinal, 
and four transverse. The longitudinal flue was one foot nine 
inches wide at the bottom, and seven inches at the top. The 

o2 



196 THE ROMANS. [chap. vi. 

transverse flues were six inches wide at the top, and one foot six 
inches at the bottom. They were built partly of unhewn stone, 
and partly of brick, forming a rude kind of arches. The inter- 
mediate space between the transverse flues was filled up with 
ridge tiles formed into funnels, and placed between layers of 
brick and stone ; while the interstices, which were much wider 
than is usual in walling, were filled with a reddish clay. The 
funnels were on an average eighteen inches long, and four and 
a-half in diameter, some formed by only one of the curved tiles. 
A row of perpendicular funnels extended along the north and 
south walls, and seemed to have been carried up to the top 
of the building. This elaborate hypocaust is shown, as it 
appeared when opened, in our accompanying plate, which is a 
view taken from the south-west corner, and exhibits a fragment of 
the cement floor, as well as the floor of another room on the east. 
The latter has no flues or hypocaust underneath, but at the north- 
east corner was a sort of basin hollowed in the floor, from which 
a leaden pipe passed through the wall. From the opposite 
corner of this room was a passage, with a floor of cement, rising 
towards the west, to more than three feet above the level of 
the other part. The upper part of it is destroyed, but at the 
south-east corner of the great court is a passage which appears to 
have been one of the entrances to it. 

From excavations made in different parts, it appeared that the 
great court, b, had been laid with a coarse sort of terrace pavement. 
Further excavations outside the southern wall of the great court, 
brought to light a continuation of the western wall, with an apart- 
ment in the corner, No. 27, and further on a range of rooms, at 
28. The excavations were next carried on from the north-east 
corner of the great court, b, along the eastern side of the court, a, 
which led to the discovery of a new series of apartments, Nos. 3 
to 8, with traces of pavements and hypocausts. These and the 
corresponding rooms on the west side were carefully examined. 
In the room, No. 11, were found eight square stone pillars, two 
feet nine inches and three quarters high, which seemed to have 
been the supports of a hypocaust. On each side of the court was 
a gallery, sixty-two feet five inches long, and eight feet five inches 
wide, each of which had possessed handsome mosaic pavements, 
and which joined up to the great gallery on the north side of the 
court. These galleries had had flues under them, and on the 




Hypocaust in the Roman Villa at Woodchester. 



chap, vl] YILLA AT WOODCHESTER. 197 

outside of the walls of each, within the court, were short parallel 
walls that appeared to have been the fire-places to hypocausts. 
In some of the rooms on the west side, remains of very handsome 
mosaic pavements were discovered. The floors on the east side of 
the court appeared to have been much more thoroughly destroyed 
than on the west. The walls of the apartment, No. 3, were 
continued northwardly, but could not be traced except at intervals, 
as they ran under the churchyard and the church ; and it was 
evident that the whole mass of buildings had extended much 
further in that direction. Perhaps there was another court. A 
transverse wall below the room, No. 27, appeared also to lead to other 
buildings, so that in spite of the immense extent of the building 
thus uncovered, it appears that it was by no means the complete villa. 
Our cut on page 189 gives a plan of as much of this extensive 
building as has been explored, and will furnish us with a general 
notion of its arrangements. It covers an area of five hundred and 
fifty feet by above three hundred feet The approach was by a level 
platform from the south, with outbuildings on the left, if not also on 
the right. Here the visitor approached apparently a long dead 
wall, with the grand portal in the centre. On passing through 
the entrance gateway, he found himself in an immense court, 
about a hundred and fifty feet square, with masses of building on 
each side. In front of him was another gateway, which led him into 
a second court, ninety feet square, surrounded on three sides 
by a gallery, or, as the ancients called it, cryptoporticus, which was, 
no doubt, either closed in, or capable of being closed in, as the hypo- 
causts under it show that it was intended to be warmed. Opposite 
the gate by which he entered, was probably another portal that led 
him through the northern cryptoporticus into the grand hall, No. 1, 
which was decorated with every kind of ornamentation, and perhaps 
with a fountain or basin of water in the middle. It is possible that 
beyond this there was another small court, surrounded by buildings, 
the foundations of which lie under the churchyard and church. 
A simple glance at the plan is sufficient to show us that it is 
useless to attempt to give any explanation of the mass of rooms 
which surround these different courts. It seems reasonable to 
suppose that the more elegant and private apartments were those 
built round the inner court, a. The apartments round the little 
side court, c, were perhaps, as Lysons supposed, baths and rooms for 
purposes connected with them. Perhaps those on the other side 



THE ROMANS, [chap. vi. 



of the court were rooms for recreation and conversing, and they 
seem to have been adorned with sculptures, and perhaps with 
pictures, ornamental pottery, and plants.' 1 ' 

The only common feature in the Roman villas in Britain 
seems to have been the large courts round which the buildings 
were grouped : and it is in this alone that they bear any close 
resemblance to the directions given by Vitruvius. f In the villa 
at Bignor, there were also two courts, larger even than those at 
Woodchester, but they lay with a different aspect, running north- 
west and south-east, instead of nearly north and south. The 
inner court at Bignor was surrounded by a more perfect and 
extensive cryptoporticus than that at Woodchester. The court 
itself was a parallelogram, not quite perfect, as the northern side 
w 7 as a little longer than the side opposite. The southern crypto- 
porticus measured a hundred and thirty-seven feet nine inches in 
length, and eight feet in width. The western cryptoporticus 
extending across the width of the court, was ninety-six feet 
long, by ten wide. The great outer court appeared not to have 
had buildings round it, although traces of buildings were 
found towards the middle of the area. There appears to have 
been a large entrance gate from the outside of the building into 
the inner court on its southern side. The baths, which were 
more extensive and more clearly defined than at Woodchester, 
were attached to the inner court, near its south-eastern corner. 
The cryptoporticus of the villa at Bignor had had tesselated 
pavements ; the level of the floor on the northern side w 7 as more 
elevated than the others, and at the northern corner, where this 
northern cryptoporticus joined the western one, there was a small 
square room, with a very elegant pavement, through which, by 

* The Roman villas no doubt long remained, as imposing ruins, after the 
departure of the Romans. The earth gradually accumulated, till, at a much later 
period, the upper parts of the walls were cleared away for the materials, leaving 
the substructure underneath. The pavements have suffered most from being 
accidentally discovered, from time to time, by the ignorant peasantry, who broke 
them up, imagining that treasures were concealed under them. Perhaps the 
Caledonian or Saxon invaders often destroyed the pavements from the same 
cause. The Saxons imagined that all statues and busts were implements of magic, 
and that the dangerous spell could only be broken by breaking them. Hence, we 
seldom find more than fragments of statues. 

f Lysons attempted to trace out the design of the villa at Woodchester, by 
applying the rules given by Vitruvius, but I think without much success, although 
that villa is more regular in its plan than most of the others. To most of them 
the rules of Vitruvius seem quite inapplicable. 



chap. vlJ EOMAN VILLAS. 199 

means of steps, people passed from one into the other. The 
accompanying plate represents this room as it appeared when first 
discovered. The painted stucco remained fresh on the wall. The end 
of the floor of the northern cryptoporticus is seen to the right. It is 
singular that under the middle of the court at Bignor, foundations 
of old walls were found, which appeared to have belonged to a 
previous villa that had been rebuilt on a different plan. At 
North Leigh, in Oxfordshire, the stone materials of a former 
building had been made use of, for the stones of an arch which 
were found in one of the larger rooms, had been made out of frag- 
ments of columns, and the mouldings of bases and capitals still 
remained on the back. The inner quadrangle only of this vill? 
has been explored, if it ever consisted of more than one. There 
is a large entrance gateway with several rooms adjoining on the 
south-eastern side, and the apartments round the other three sides 
are very numerous. The quadrangle is not an exact square; the 
dimensions of its four sides being, north-east, a hundred and 
sixty-seven feet ; south-east, a hundred and eighty-six feet ; south- 
east, a hundred and fifty- three feet; and north-east, two hundred 
and thirteen feet. 

Many of the Eoman villas hitherto discovered in this country 
appear to have been of nearly equal extent with those described 
above, and we derive an extraordinary notion of the condition of 
the island at this period from the number of these extensive and 
evidently magnificent buildings w T hich have been discovered. As 
these discoveries have generally been the result of accident, there 
can be no doubt that we are only acquainted with a small number 
of the villas which were scattered over the soil of Britain. The 
number already discovered amounts probably to not less than a 
hundred. Some of the most magnificent lay in the south-west. 
In Gloucestershire, besides the great villa at Woodchester, and 
the extensive group wdiich has already been mentioned as scattered 
over the country around it, large villas have been discovered at 
Lidney Park, Great Witcombe, Rodmarton, Combe-end, Withing- 
ton, Bisley, and Stancombe Park near Dursley. No less extensive 
villas have been found in Somersetshire, at Combe St. Nicholas, 
East Coker, and Wellow : in Wiltshire, at Bromham, Littlecote 
Park, Pitmead near Warminster, and Rudge near Froxfield ; in 
Dorset, at Frampton, Lenthy Green near Sherborne, and Halstock; 
in Hampshire, at Bramdean, Crondall, West Dean, and Thruxton; 



200 THE ROMANS. [chap. vi. 

in Sussex, at Bignor, and other places ; at Basildon, in Berkshire ; 
in Oxfordshire, among many other places, at North Leigh, 
Stonesfield, Great Lew, and Wigginton ; in Northamptonshire, at 
Cottersbook, Welden, Burrow Hill, Harpole, &c. ; in Nottingham- 
shire, at Mansfield Woodhouse. Kent and Essex appear to have 
been covered with extensive villas, but they seem to have been 
generally less magnificent than those in the west, and no fine 
tesselated pavements have yet been found in them. In the 
former of these two counties, they lay thickly scattered along 
the road from Canterbury to London, and on the banks of 
the Medway towards Maidstone, as well as on the southern coast. 
Among the principal villas found in Essex are those at West 
Mersey, discovered long ago, and those explored more recently in 
the north-west of the county, at Icklington, Chesterford, and 
Hadstock. Lincolnshire appears to have been a rich and 
important district, and large villas with magnificent pavements 
have been found at Horkstow, Winterton, Roxby near the 
Humber, Haseby, Storton, Scampton, and Grantham. It must 
be borne in mind that Lincolnshire is comparatively unexplored, 
and so are most of the northern and midland counties. Yorkshire 
must have contained many fine country mansions of this kind, 
yet I am only aware of the discovery of one at Hovingham, in the 
North Biding. Some years ago, remains of a Boman villa were 
found at Buxton, in Derbyshire, which seems, even at that early 
period, to have been visited for its mineral waters ; and several 
have been found on the Welsh border in Shropshire and 
Herefordshire, as well as in North and South Wales. 

Many of the villas which have been opened present unequivocal 
traces of having been plundered and injured by the violence of 
invaders, and sometimes they bear traces of having been burnt. 
Here and there human bones have been found, and while many 
of these may be accounted for by subsequent interment, yet in 
some cases there can hardly be a doubt of their having belonged 
to persons who were slain when the building was attacked. In 
1833, some excavations at Silchester brought to light Boman 
baths, in a good state of preservation, having, like the baths 
discovered in the villas, leaden pipes to carry off the water. In 
one of these pipes were found two hundred Boman coins in brass, 
and in the bath lay a human skeleton, which, with a slight stretch 
of the imagination, may be supposed to have been that of an 



chap, vi.] TESSELATED PAVEMENTS. 201 

inhabitant of Calleva, who had sought refuge there when the city 
was invaded by the enemy, in the hope of saving his little treasure 
by concealing it where no one would think of seeking for it. 
Perhaps, if we carefully noted the articles of domestic use which 
are dug up in the excavations, we might at least form probable 
conjectures on the purposes of the rooms in which they were 
found. The number of such articles found at Woodchester was 
much less than might be expected from the space excavated ; 
they consisted chiefly of several knives and choppers, a weight, 
a key, some fibulae and buckles, and several hair pins, and other 
small personal ornaments of this kind ; two spears, and parts of 
weapons, with a considerable quantity of pottery, and a certain 
number of coins. The latter are always found scattered about. 
We are often tantalised by finding mere fragments of what might 
have given us the most important information relating to the 
occupiers of these villas. Such are the fragments of inscriptions 
on the walls found at Woodchester. Inscribed stones were 
found within the quadrangle of the villa at Pitney, but they also 
proved mere fragments, one of them having the words : — 

PATER 
PATRI 
SANC 

The other, which appears to have been a sepulchral inscription, 
and to commemorate probably some member of the household who 
had been buried in the court, had the imperfect inscription : — 

VIXI SIN 
TRIGINTA 
QVM CAPI 
NONO A 

The most interesting portion of the villas, as they now remain, 
is, however, the tesselated pavements. These are beautiful as 
works of art, and interesting for the subjects they represent; and 
they must have been the result of immense labour and great 
skill. These tesselated pavements were not confined to the 
country villas, but were used in the better mansions in the towns, 
and examples have been found in London, Cirencester, Gloucester, 
Caerleon, Caerwent, Kenchester, Leicester, York, Aldborough, 
Lincoln, Colchester, Canterbury, Dorchester, &c. Some of those 
found in London, Cirencester, and Leicester,* are of very supe- 

* Part of an extremely fine Roman tesselated pavement has been uncovered in 
the cellar of a grocer in Leicester, who has kept it open, and shows it to visitors 



202 THE ROMANS. [chap. vi. 

rior execution. As I have stated before, these pavements are 
formed with a number of small tesserae, or cubes, set into a fine 
cement, and arranged in patterns or subjects, somewhat in the 
manner of Berlin wool patterns ; but in the pavements the cubes 
are of different sizes, which enabled the artist to give far more 
freedom to his lines and effect to his picture. The cubes were 
made of different substances, in order to produce various shades 
of colour ; some being of stone, others of terra-cotta, and others 
again of glass. Professor Buckman, in his description of the 
beautiful pavements found in Cirencester, has given us an excel- 
lent analysis of the materials of which they are composed. Six of 
the colours employed there are natural substances, and show us how 
skilfully the Roman artist turned to account the materials fur- 
nished by the neighbourhood. White was produced by small 
cubes of chalk, which, on account of its softness, was used very 
sparingly, and only where it was necessary to produce very high 
relief. The hard, fine-grained free-stone from the quarries round 
Cirencester furnished a cream colour, and, when it had been 
exposed to a certain degree of heat, it served for a grey. Yellow 
was furnished by the oolite of the gravel drift of the district. 
The old red sandstone, from Herefordshire, was used to produce a 
chocolate colour ; and slate-colour was furnished from the lime- 
stone bands of the lower lias in the vale of Gloucester. Three 
colours, light red, dark red, and black, were produced by terra- 
cotta ; and one, a transparent ruby, by glass. Other materials 
are used in different parts of the country, the coloured glass being 
always the rarest. " When the tesserae were all set, and the 
cement hardened, the finish appears to have been given by 
polishing over the surface of the whole, which not only gave 
a perfectly smooth surface to the floor, but increased the bril- 
liance of the effect; the cream-coloured and grey stones, from 
their hardness, took a fine polish, whilst we may conceive that 
the reds, being made of terra-cotta, would remain opaque, and 
this very contrast tended to heighten the effect, which was 
perhaps the reason why substances capable of high polish were 
not chosen in all instances." 

In the subjects represented on these pavements, we observe a 

at a shilling each. It is well worth visiting. The principal pavements at Bignor, in 
Sussex, have also been kept open, and they are protected by buildings erected 
over them. 



chap, vl] TESSELATED PAVEMENTS. 203 

considerable variety ; though, as far as the discoveries go, two or 
three subjects seem to have been more popular than the others. 
It is not impossible that the subjects thus chosen may have had 
some reference to the purpose for which the room was designed. 
One of the most popular subjects hitherto observed, is that of 
Bacchus seated on a tiger or leopard, which perhaps indicates a 
love of conviviality among the people to whom these extensive 
residences belonged. This subject, which usually forms the 
centre of a pavement, was found in the fine pavement discovered 
in Leadenhall-street, in London ; in the pavement at Thruxton ; 
and in others at Stonesfleld and Frampton. Another very 
popular central subject was Orpheus playing on the lyre, which 
seems to have been a favourite, because it gave the opportunity of 
picturing birds and beasts in the field of the pavement. This 
subject has been found in pavements at Woodchester, Horkstow, 
Winterton, and Littlecote. A field covered with fishes and sea 
monsters is also not an uncommon subject, and has been found 
at Witcombe, Cirencester, Withington, and Bromham in Wilt- 
shire. The four seasons formed another favourite subject, which 
has been found at Thruxton, Littlecote, and Cirencester ; in the 
latter place, the seasons are represented by heads in medallions, 
in a circle alternating with four other medallions, of which two 
are destroyed, but the two which remain contain respectively 
Bacchus on the tiger, and Actseon. At Littlecote, the seasons 
are represented by female figures riding on different animals in 
a circle round the figure of Orpheus. The Gorgon's head forms 
a centre piece in pavements found at Bignor and Bramdean ; an 
Amazon encountering a tiger, at Frampton ; ik^on, at Ciren- 
cester; Mercury, at Dorchester; and Hercules and Antaeus, at 
Bramdean. A fine pavement at Horkstow was divided into 
compartments, each containing a group of mythological and emble- 
matical figures; along the side were represented chariot races, 
enlivened by accidents, one carriage being overthrown by the 
wheel going off, and another with the horse fallen down. The 
pavement at East Coker represented hunting scenes, and on a 
fragment preserved from destruction, were seen the attendants 
carrying home the slaughtered deer. On one of the pavements 
at Bignor there is a border of winged Cupids, or Genii, in the 
characters of gladiators, in armour, with shields, swords, and 
tridents. The large pavement at Frampton was also divided into 



204 THE ROMANS. [chap. vi. 

compartments containing mythological subjects, such as Bacchus, 
Neptune, Diana hunting, &c. On the sides of a compartment 
containing a large bearded head of Neptune, was an inscription 
intended evidently for verse, and relating to the picture ; on one 
side are the lines, — 

NEPTVNI VERTEX REGMEN 
SORTITI MOBILE VENTIS 

On the other, — 

SCVLTVM CVI CERVLEA EST 
DELFINIS CINCTA DVOBVS 

Under a compartment, which was nearly destroyed, was the 
fragment of another inscription, — 

. . . NVS PERPICIS VLLVM 
. . . . GNARE CVPIDO. * 

A pavement at Thruxton bore an inscription, which seems to 
have commemorated the persons for whom the villa was built ; 
but unfortunately only a portion of it remains perfect, which 
is distinctly read as follows: — qvlntvs natalivs natalinvs 
et bodeni. Of the line at the other side of the pavement, (the 
continuation of the inscription,) fragments only of two letters were 
found, apparently a V and an 0, and some antiquaries have rather 
hastily concluded that these must have belonged to the word 
voto, and propose to read the whole Quintus Natalius Nata- 
linus et Bodeni fee erunt ex voto, i. e. Quintus Natalius Natalinus 
and the Bodeni have made this in fulfilment of a vow. But 
there are strong reasons against such an interpretation ; it is not 
probable that this is a votive offering ; the Bodeni seem to be an 
invention of the interpreter, and a comparison of the space with 
the number of letters in the first half of the inscription and the 
position of the fragments, will show that there must have been 
more letters in the lost part than are here supplied, and that the 
last o of the supposed voto was not the end of the inscription. 
We should perhaps have found a letter or two at the beginning of 
the second line, which would have completed the name of the wife 
of Quintus Natalius Natalinus. f 

* Lysons supplies it : "f acinus perficis ullum . . . ignare cupido.^ The 
meaning these inscriptions were intended to convey, is more evident than the 
construction of the words. » 

+ The interpretation alluded to, was proposed hy the late Dr. Ingram, of 
Oxford, and has been recently published under the sanction of the Archaeological 
Institute of Great Britain, in the proceedings of the Salisbury meeting of 1849. 



chap, vi.] STATE OF AGRICULTURE. 205 

It must be observed that, when we compare the different pave- 
ments representing the same subject, we do not find them copied 
after the same model, or treated in the same manner. It is also 
curious that the subjects most frequently repeated, were the same 
on the continent as in Britain. The central Orpheus, with his 
circle of animals, has been found in a pavement at St. Colombe, 
in France, and in one at or near Friburg, in Switzerland ; the 
Gorgon's head has also been found in pavements in France ; 
and a pavement of fishes and sea monsters was found at Pau. 
Perhaps the artists who made the pavements, carried about with 
them a professional list of subjects which they offered for choice, 
if their employer had not a subject of his own to propose. 

It is impossible to discover, from the appearance of these 
villas, to what class of the community they usually belonged, but 
we can hardly doubt that their owners were men of wealth, who 
sought here that splendid country retirement to which we know the 
Eoman gentry were much attached. When we consider the great 
number of rooms which were grouped round the different courts, 
we must be convinced that the lord of the mansion had a nume- 
rous household, troops of slaves, and menials, and clients ; and it 
is not improbable that some of the buildings, more distant from the 
domestic apartments of the family, were separate dwellings, 
tenanted by his farmers, and even by their labourers. But the 
peasantry in general, no doubt, lived in huts, slightly constructed, 
and of perishable materials, either separately, or grouped together 
in villages. These villages are apparently the settlements, the 
nature of which have been described in a former chapter, and 
which have been commonly called British villages. The coins 
and other remains found in them, show that they belonged to the 
Roman period, but it is highly probable that the peasantry who 
inhabited them were chiefly of the old British race. 

We know very little of the state of agriculture in this island 
under the Romans, though, as it was celebrated for its fertility, it 
was probably extensively and highly cultivated. When Caesar 
visited the island, he remarked chiefly the large herds of cattle, 
which are the principal wealth of uncivilised peoples, but under 
the Romans it appears to have been celebrated for the pro- 
duction of corn. The emperor Julian, in one of his orations, 
states that when he commanded in Gaul, about the year 360, 
agriculture had been so entirely interrupted in the countries 



206 THE ROMAN'S. [chap, vl 

bordering on the Rhine, by the ravages of war, that the population 
was in danger of perishing by famine. In this emergency, Julian 
caused six hundred corn-ships to be built on the Rhine, with 
timber from the forest of the Ardennes, and these made several 
voyages to the coast of Britain, and, returning up the Rhine 
laden with British corn, distributed it among the towns and 
fortresses on that river, and he thus obtained a sufficient supply 
to prevent the threatened calamity. Gibbon has supposed that 
each of Julian's corn-ships carried at least seventy tons, which I 
am told is a very low estimate. But taking this, and reckoning 
wheat at sixty pounds a bushel, the six hundred vessels would have 
carried at each voyage a hundred and ninety-six thousand quarters, 
which would not be a very large export. But as we are ignorant 
of the number of voyages they made, and the estimate of tonnage 
is perhaps too small, we are justified in supposing that the export 
was large enough to prove that the country was very extensively, 
and, perhaps, for the age, very well cultivated. In many 
parts of Britain we find distinct marks of former cultivation on 
land which is now common, and has certainly lain fallow for ages, 
and it is not impossible that it may have been the work of the 
Roman ploughshare. A curious legend has been told in some 
parts to explain these appearances of ancient cultivation : it is 
pretended that when, in the time of king John, the country lay 
under an interdict, the pope's ban fell expressly on all cultivated 
land, and that the superstitious peasantry, imagining that the 
lands which were not cultivated when the bull was written were 
excepted from its effects, left their cultivated lands, and ploughed 
the wastes and commons as long as the interdict lasted. The 
suggestion made above is at least as probable an explanation as 
the legend. Mr. Bruce observed similar traces of cultivation on 
the waste lands in Northumberland, and he is probably right in 
attributing them to the Romans. " A little to the south of 
Borcovicus," he says, " and stretching westward, the ground has 
been thrown up in long terraced lines, a mode of cultivation much 
practised in Italy and the East. Similar terraces, more feebly 
developed, appear at Bradley ; I have seen them very distinctly 
marked on the banks of the Rede-water, at old Carlisle, and in 
other places." It is probable that Julian's corn-ships came for 
their cargoes to the Tyne or the Humber. To judge by the 



CHAP. VI.] 



COUNTRY LIFE. 



207 



accompanying cut, the plough used in Roman Britain was rather 
of a primitive construction. It represents a Roman bronze, said 
to have been found at Piersebridge in Yorkshire, and now in the 




Bronze of a Roman Ploughman. 

collection of Lord Londesborough. The figure of the ploughman 
gives us probably a correct picture of the costume of the Romano- 
British peasant. Fruit-trees were also cultivated with care, and 
the Romans are said to have introduced, among others, the cherry. 
We may probably add the vine. 

One of the chief occupations of country life among the higher 
classes was the chase, to which the Romans were much attached. 
If we cast our eyes over the map of Roman Britain, we perceive 
considerable tracts of land which the great roads avoided, and in 
which there were apparently no towns. These were forest 
districts, represented by the medieval forests of Charnwood, Sher- 
wood, and others, which abounded in beasts of the chase. Some 
of the more extensive forests were inhabited by wild boars, and 
even by wolves. The chase of the boar appears to have been a 
favourite pursuit in Britain. An altar was found at Durham, 
dedicated to the god Silvanus, by the prefect of an ala of soldiers, 
who had slain an extraordinary fine boar, which had set all the 
hunters before him at defiance.* At Birdoswald in Northumber- 
land {Amboglanna), was found a small altar dedicated also to 



* SILVANO INVICTO SACRVM C TETIVS VETVRIVS MICIANVS PR^IF ALAE SEBOSIANAE 
OB APRVM EXIMIAE FORMAE CAPTVM QVEM MVLTI ANTECESSORES EIVS PRAEDARI NON 

potvervnt v. s. l. p. This inscription is given in Camden. 



208 THE ROMANS, [chap. vi. 

Silvanus by the hunters of Banna.* The Koman pottery, made 
in Britain, was frequently ornamented with hunting scenes, in 
which the stag or the hare is generally the victim, and it gives us 
pictures of the dogs for which Britain was famous.f These are at 
times represented with something of the character of the modern 
bulbdog or mastiff, while others have the more delicate form of 
the greyhound and stag-hound. The classic writers contain not 
unfrequent allusions to the dogs of Britain. Claudian, enume- 
rating those peculiar to different countries, speaks of the British 
breed as capable of overcoming bulls : — 

" Magnaque taurorum fracturse colla Britannae." 

The more delicately shaped dog, often found on the Bomano 
British pottery, appears to be the one named by the Bomans 
vertragus y which was also derived from this island. Martial 

says, — 

" Non sibi, sed domino, venatur vertragus acer, 
Illesum leporem qui tibi dente feret." 

And Nemesian speaks of the export of British hounds for the 
purpose of hunting : — 

" Sed non Spartanos tantum, tantuinve molossos 
Pascendum catulos ; divisa Britannia mittit 
Veloces, nostrique orbis venatibus aptos." 



* Banna was a town or station not mentioned in the Notitia Imperii or in the 
Itineraries, but it is found in the list of Roman towns in Britain given in the 
Ravenna Cosmography, which places it between iEsica and Uxellodunum. An 
ornamental bronze cup was found in a rubbish pit at Rudge in Wiltshire, more 
than a century ago, having the names of five of these towns in an inscription 
round the rim — aballava vxellodvm g amboglan s banna . a . mais. It seems 
to have been made for a club or society of persons belonging to these towns, 
perhaps hunters. 

f Figures of these dogs will be given in the next chapter. 



chap, til] ROMAX MANUFACTURES. 209 



CHAPTER VII. 

Manufactures of the Romans in Britain — Pottery — The Upchurch Ware — Dym- 
church — The Potteries at Durobrivse — The Samian Ware — Other Varieties 
— Terra-cottas — Roman Glass — Kimmeridge Coal Manufacture — Mineral 
Coal — Metals — The Roman Iron-works in Britain ; Sussex, the Forest of 
Dean, &c. — Tin and Lead — Other Metals — Bronze — The Arts; Sculpture 
— Medicine ; the Oculists' Stamps — Trades : a Goldsmith's Sign. 

"With a considerable population, great riches, as evinced by its 
numerous splendid villas, and an advanced state of civilisation, 
manufactures and trade must doubtless have been carried on in 
Britain to a very considerable extent. Many of these were 
naturally of a description which left few traces behind them, but 
of the existence of others we have proofs of a more substantial 
kind, and as they form a rather important class of our antiquities, 
they deserve especial attention. We begin with that of which 
the remains are most numerous, the pottery. 

Any one who has sailed up the Medway, will have observed 
that the left bank of the river, a little above Sheerness, consists 
of low flat ground, cut by the water into innumerable little creeks, 
and at high water almost buried by the sea. This is called the 
Halstow and the Upchurch marshes. In the time of the Romans 
the channel of the river appears to have been here much 
narrower, and the "marshes" had not been encroached upon by 
the sea as they are now. If we go up the little creeks in the 
Upchurch marshes at low water, and observe the sides of the 
banks, we shall soon discover, at the depth of about three feet, more 
or less, a stratum, often a foot thick, of broken pottery. This is 
especially observable in what is called Otterham creek, and also in 
Lower Halstow creek, where it may be traced continuously in the 
banks, and may be brought up by handfuls from the clay in the 
bed of the creek. This immense layer of broken pottery, mixed 



210 THE KOMANS. [chap, til 

with plenty of vessels in a perfect, or nearly perfect, state, has 
heen traced at intervals through an extent of six or seven miles 
in length, and two or three in breadth, and there cannot he the 
least doubt that it is the refuse of very extensive potteries, which 
existed probably during nearly the whole period of the Roman 
occupation of Britain, and which not only supplied the whole 
island with a particular class of earthenware, but which perhaps 
also furnished an export trade ; for we find urns and other vessels 
precisely similar to the Upchurch ware in considerable quantity 
among the Roman pottery dug up in the neighbourhood of 
Boulogne. The clay which constitutes the soil in the Upchurch 
marshes is very tenacious, of a dark colour, and of fine quality, 
well calculated for the manufacture of pottery. 

The prevailing colour of the Upchurch pottery, which is of a 
fine and hard texture, is a blue-black, which was produced by 
baking it in the smoke of vegetable substances. A sufficient 
number of perfect examples have been found, to show that the 
variety of forms was almost infinite ; but a few of the more 
remarkable are given in the lower group on the accompanying 
plate. The patterns with which it is ornamented, though gene- 
rally of a simple character, are also extremely diversified. Some 
are ornamented with bands of half-circles, made with compasses, 
and from these half-circles lines are in many instances drawn 
to the bottoms of the vessels with some instrument like a 
notched piece of wood. Some are ornamented with wavy 
intersections, and zigzag lines ; while on others, the ornament 
is formed by raised points, encircling the vessels in bands, or 
grouped into circles, squares, and diamond patterns. The 
cross-lined pattern of the large urn in the back-ground of our 
group, is a very common one. Mr. Roach Smith has found 
tracings of buildings in the neighbourhood of the marshes, which 
perhaps mark the habitations of the potters. It is evident from 
the extent of the bed of pottery, that a great number of workmen 
must have been employed here ; and, as might be expected, we 
scarcely excavate a Roman site in any part of the island without 
finding samples of the Upchurch ware. 

There can, indeed, be no doubt that the Upchurch marshes 
furnished a great proportion of the commoner pottery used in 
Roman Britain. A few years ago, as Mr. James Elliott of Dym- 
church, the engineer of the Dymchurch marshes, was carrying on 




Roman Pottery from Castor {Durobriva 




Roman Pottery from the Upchurch Marshes. 



CHAP. Til.] 



POTTERIES OF DUKOBRIV/E. 



211 



excavations connected with the works of the sea-wall there, where 
the clay differs not much from that at Upchurch, he found traces 
of extensive potteries on that part of the southern Kentish coast. 
The examination of the ground was not carried out sufficiently to 
decide on the character of the ware manufactured there, but the 
fragments seemed to be rather those of amphorae, and such-like 
Tessels, than the sort of pottery made at Upchurch. 

The site of the potteries which produced another preTailing 
sort of Romano-British pottery, was discoTered by the late 
Mr. Artis, at Castor, on the eastern boundaries of Northampton- 
shire, the site of the Roman town of Durobrivae. These potteries 
extended thence westward, along the country bordering on the 
Nen, to the neighbourhood of Wansford. The Durobrivian pottery 
was of a superior quality, and adorned with more elegance than 
that made in the Upchurch marshes. Some examples of this ware 
are given in the upper group on our plate. It also is usually of a 
bluish or slate colour, but the ornaments, which are in relief, and 
added with the hand after the Tessel had been made and burned, 
are sometimes white. They consist often of elegant scrolls, like 
those in our engraTing, and of a Tariety of other patterns. 
Among these, scenes of stag and hare hunting are very common, 
and they are executed with a freedom of touch which shows 
much artistic skill in the workmen. The annexed cat represents 
on a diminished scale one of these hunting scenes, in which we 




Hunting Subject, from Durobrivian pottery. 

have a picture of a British stag-hound. In some rare instances, 
figures of men are introduced, urging on the dogs, or spearing 
the stag or boar; and the costume of these figures indicates 
a rather late period of the Roman sway in Britain. In the 
pictures of hare-hunting scenes the dog has much the same 
form as that here represented, but in some fragments, of 

p 2 




212 THE ROMANS. [chap. vii. 

which our second cut is an example, we see a dog of a stronger 
and fiercer description, which perhaps, if we had the whole 
pattern, would he found to be engaged in 
hunting the boar. Other favourite repre- 
sentations on this pottery were dolphins and 
other fishes. Indented vases, usually of a 
dark copper colour, like that in the middle 
of our group, are also characteristic of the 
potteries of Durobrivse; in examples found 
at Chesterfield, in Essex, these indentations 
are filled with figures of the principal deities, 
in white. Similar pottery appears to have 
been manufactured in Flanders ; and the 
large urn in the back-ground of our group, was found at Bredene, 
in the department of the Lis. 

The Koman potteries at Castor have a peculiar interest from 
the circumstance that Mr. Artis's researches were there re- 
warded by the discovery of the potters' kilns, and that he was 
thus enabled to investigate the process of the manufacture. This 
we shall be best able to describe in his own words, giving in an 
accompanying engraving a sketch of one of the kilns, as it 
appeared when uncovered. One of these kilns, discovered in 
1844 at Sibson, near Wansford, Mr. Artis described as follows :— 
" This kiln," he says, " had been used for firing the common 
blue or slate-coloured pottery, and had been built on part of the 
site of one of the same kind, and within a yard and a half of one 
that had been constructed for firing pottery of a different 
description. The older exhausted kiln, which occupied part of 
the site of that under consideration, presented the appearance of 
very early work ; the bricks had evidently been modelled with 
the hand, and not moulded, and the workmanship was altogether 
inferior to that of the others, which were also in a very mutilated 
state ; but the character of the work, the bricks, the mouths of the 
furnaces, and the oval pedestals which supported the floors of the 
kilns, were still apparent. The floors had been broken up some 
time previous to the site being abandoned, and the area had then 
been used as a receptacle for the accumulated rubbish of other 
kilns." 

" During an examination of the pigments used by the Eoman 
potters of this place," Mr. Artis continues, " I was led to the 



chap, vil] POTTERIES OF DUROBRIV^E. 213 

conclusion that the blue and slate-coloured vessels met with here 
in such abundance, were coloured by suffocating the fire of the 
kiln, at the time when its contents had acquired a degree of heat 
sufficient to insure uniformity of colour. I had so firmly made up 
my mind upon the process of manufacturing and firing this 
peculiar kind of earthenware, that, for some time previous to the 
recent discovery, I had denominated the kilns in which it had 
been fired, smother kilns. The mode of manufacturing the bricks 
of which these kilns are made, is worthy of notice. The clay was 
previously mixed with about one-third of rye in the chaff, which, 
being consumed by the fire, left cavities in the room of the grains. 
This might have been intended to modify expansion and contrac- 
tion, as well as to assist the gradual distribution of the colouring 
vapour. The mouth of the furnace and top of the kiln were 
no doubt stopped ; thus we find every part of the kiln, from the 
inside wall to the earth on the outside, and every part of the clay 
wrappers of the dome penetrated with the colouring exhalation. 
As further proof that the colour of the ware was imparted by 
firing, I collected the clays of the neighbourhood, including 
specimens from the immediate vicinity of the smother-kilns. In 
colour, some of these clays resembled the ware after firing, and 
some were darker. I submitted them to a process similar to that 
I have described. The clays, dug near the kilns, whitened in 
firing, probably from being bituminous. I also put some frag- 
ments of the blue pottery into the kiln ; they came out precisely 
of the same colour as the clay fired with them, which had been 
taken from the site of the kilns. The experiment proved to me 
that the colour could not be attributed to any metallic oxide, 
either existing in the clay, or applied externally ; and this con- 
clusion is confirmed by the appearance of the clay wrappers of 
the dome of the kiln. It should be remarked, that this colour is 
so volatile, that it is expelled by a second firing in an open kiln. 

" I have now traced these potteries to an extent of upwards of 
twenty miles. * They are principally confined to the gravel beds 
on the banks of the Nen and its tributary streams ; the clay used 
at some of them appears to have been collected at some little 
distance from the works. The kilns are all constructed on the 
same principle. A circular hole was dug, from three to four feet 

* Mr. Artis, in another report, estimates the number of hands who must have 
been employed at once in the Durobrivian potteries, at not less than two thousand. 



214 THE ROMANS. [chap. yii. 

deep, and four in diameter, and walled round to the height of two 
feet. A furnace, one third of the diameter of the kiln in length, 
communicated with the side. In the centre of the circle so 
formed was an oval pedestal, the height of the sides, with the end 
pointing to the furnace mouth. Upon this pedestal and side 
wall the floor of the kiln rests. It is formed of perforated 
angular bricks, meeting at one point in the centre. The furnace 
is arched with bricks moulded for the purpose. The side of the 
kiln is constructed with curved bricks, set edgeways, in a thick 
slip (or liquid) of the same material, to the height of two feet.* 
I now proceed to describe the process of packing the kiln, and 
securing uniform heat in firing the ware, which was the same 
in the two different kinds of kilns. They were first carefully 
loose-packed with the articles to be fired, up to the height of the 
side walls. The circumference of the bulk was then gradually 
diminished, and finished in the shape of a dome. As this 
arrangement progressed, an attendant seems to have followed the 
packer, and thinly covered a layer of pots with coarse hay or grass. 
He then took some thin clay, the size of his hand, and laid it flat 
on the grass upon the vessels ; he then placed more grass on the 
edge of the clay just laid on, and then more clay, and so on until 
he had completed the circle. By this time the packer would have 
raised another tier of pots, the plasterer following as before, 
hanging the grass over the top edge of the last layer of plasters, 
until he had reached the top, in which a small aperture was left, 
and the clay nipt round the edge ; another coating would be laid 
on as before described. Gravel or loam was then thrown up 
against the side wall where the clay wrappers were commenced, 
probably to secure the bricks and the clay coating. The kiln 
was then fired with wood, f In consequence of the care taken to 
place grass between the edges of the wrappers, they could be 
unpacked in the same sized pieces as when laid on in a plastic 
state, and thus the danger in breaking the coat to obtain the 
contents of the kiln could be obviated. 

* See the kiln represented in the accompanying engraving, in which the two 
labourers are standing on the original level of the ground, while the single man, 
with the spade, stands on a level with the bottom of the pit in which the kiln 
was built. 

*\* In the furnace of a kiln discovered by Mr. Artis in 1822, there was a layer 
of wood ashes from four to five inches thick. This kiln, which was in a very 
perfect state, was covered in again undisturbed. 



chap, vil] POTTERIES OF DUROBRIViE. 215 

" In the course of my excavations, I discovered a curiously 
constructed furnace, of which I have never before or since met 
with an example. Over it had been placed two circular earthern 
fire vessels (or cauldrons) ; that next above the furnace was a 
third less than the other, which would hold about eight gallons. 
The fire passed partly under both of them, the smoke escaping by 
a smoothly plastered flue, from seven to eight inches wide. The 
vessels were suspended by the rims fitting into a circular groove 
or rabbet, formed for the purpose. The composition of the 
vessels was that of a clay tempered with penny-earth. They 
contained some perfect vessels and many fragments. It is 
probable they had covers, and I am inclined to think were used 
for glazing peculiar kinds of the immense quantities of orna- 
mented ware made in this district. Its contiguity to one of the 
workshops in which the glaze (oxide of iron) and some other 
pigments were found, confirms this opinion." 

Mr. Artis then proceeds to explain the process by which the 
Durobrivian pottery was ornamented. " The vessel, after being 
thrown upon the wheel, would be allowed to become somewhat 
firm, but only sufficiently so for the purpose of the lathe. In 
the indented ware, the indenting would have to be performed 
with the vessel in as pliable a state as it could be taken from the 
lathe. A thick slip of the same body would then be procured, 
and the ornamenter would proceed by dipping the thumb, or a 
round mounted instrument, into the slip. The vessels, on which 
are displayed a variety of hunting subjects, representations of 
fishes, scrolls, and human figures, were all glazed after the figures 
were laid on ; where, however, the decorations are white, the 
vessels were glazed before the ornaments were added. Orna- 
menting with figures of animals was effected by means of sharp 
and blunt skewer instruments, and a slip of suitable consistency. 
These instruments seem to have been of two kinds : one thick 
enough to carry sufficient slip for the nose, neck, body, and 
front thigh ; the other of a more delicate kind, for a thinner slip 
for the tongue, lower jaws, eye, fore and hind legs, and tail. 
There seems to have been no retouching after the slip trailed 
from the instrument. Field sports seem to have been favourite 
subjects with our Eomano-British artists. The representations of 
deer and hare hunts are good and spirited ; the courage and 
energy of the hounds, and the distress of the hunted animals, 



216 THE ROMANS. [chap. vii. 

are given with great skill and fidelity, especially when the simple 
and off-hand process, by which they must have been executed, is 
taken into consideration." 

The two descriptions of pottery just described were undoubtedly 
made in England ; the Upchurch ware is found more or less in 
almost all Roman sites, but that manufactured at Durobrivae is by 
no means so common. We now come to a third description of 
pottery, which is found in great quantities in Britain, though we 
have every reason for believing that it was not made in this 
island. It is that which is usually termed Samian ware ; and, if 
it be not the pure Samian pottery of antiquity, it appears to have 
been an inferior description of the same class of ware. The 
Samian ware was of great repute among the ancients, and is 
frequently alluded to by Roman writers as that most used at 
table. It appears certain that it was of a red colour, and the 
terms applied to it in the classic authors answer to the specimens 
which are found in such great abundance in England.* It is 
frequently mentioned by Plautus as the ordinary ware used at 
table, as well as for sacred purposes. Pliny speaks of it as being 
in common use for the festive board ; and he gives the names of 
several places famous for their pottery, among which Aretium, in 
Italy, holds the first place. Sarrentum, Asta, and Pollentia, in 
Italy, Saguntum in Spain, and Pergamus in Asia Minor, were, as 
we learn from this writer, celebrated for the manufacture of cups. 
Trail eis in Lydia, and Mutina in Italy, were also eminent for 
manufactures of earthenware. The manufactures of these different 
places were exported to distant countries, f Isidore of Seville, at 
the end of the sixth century (he died in 6 1 0), speaks of the red 
pottery made at Aretium (the modern Arezzo) which he calls 
Aretine vases, and also of Samian ware, with an expression of 
doubt as to the exact locality which produced the latter ; so that 

* Among a large and very curious collection of Grseco-Roman terra-cottas from 
Lycia, in the possession of Mr. W. B, Barker, are some fragments of red ware, closely 
resembling what we call Samian ware, with the potters' name, in Greek, similarly 
impressed. Perhaps these are samples of pure Samian ware. 

f The words of Pliny {Hist. Nat, lib. xxxv., c. 12.) are as follows : " Major 
quoque pars hominum terrenis utitur vasis. Samia etiamnum in esculentis 
laudantur. Retinet hanc nobilitatem et Aretium in Italia; et calicum tantum 
Surrentum, Asta, Pollentia ; in Hispania, Saguntum ; in Asia, Pergamum. 
Habent et Tralleis opera sua, et Mutina in Italia ; quoniam et sic gentes nobili- 
tantur. Hsec quoque per maria terrasque ultro citroque portantur, insignibus rotse 
officinis Erythris." 



chap, vn.] SAMTAN POTTERY. 217 

it was probably made under that name in different parts of Roman 
Europe. Modern researches at Arezzo, in Italy, have not only 
brought to light a considerable quantity of the Aretine ware, but 
also the remains of the kilns in which it was baked ; and a 
scholar of that place, A. Fabroni, has published a book on the 
subject, under the title of Storia degli antichi Vasifittili Aretini. 
The specimens given in his engravings bear a general resemblance 
to the Samian ware found in Britain, and there are some points 
in which the one seems to be imitated from the other, yet there 
are also some very strongly marked circumstances in which they 
differ. The names of the potters are different, and they are 
marked in a different form and position on the vessels ; the red 
of the Aretine ware is of a deeper shade, the figures are in a 
superior style of art, and they seem to be of an earlier date. 

The common Samian ware is of an extremely delicate texture, 
having somewhat the appearance of fine red sealing-wax. The 
vessels composed of it are of all sizes and shapes, sometimes 
strong, but more frequently thin, and consequently very fragile ; 
and it is only under favourable circumstances that we find 
them unbroken. The frailty of the pure Samian ware appears, 
in classical times, to have been proverbial ; when, in Plautus, a 
person is desired to knock gently, he exclaims, in surprise, " You 
seem to fear that the door is made of Samian ware." 

M. Placide pulta. P. Metuis, credo, ne fores Samiae sient. — 

Mencechm., 1. 98. 

And, on another occasion, the brittleness of Samian ware is 
directly mentioned — 

Vide, quseso, ne quis tractet illam indiligens — 

Scis tu, ut confringi vas cito Sarniuni solet. — Bacch,, 1. 166. 

It is by no means unusual to find bowls and paterae of the ware 
of which we are speaking, that have been broken by their 
possessors in former times, and subsequently mended, generally 
by means of leaden rivets. This shows the value which must 
generally have been set upon it. 

The question whether this so-called Samian ware was ever 
manufactured in Britain has given rise to some discussion among 
antiquaries. In the mouth of the Thames, a short distance from 
the Kentish coast between Beculver and Margate, is a spot 
known popularly by the name of the Pan Rock, and Pudding-pan 



213 THE ROMANS. [chap. yii. 

Sand, because, almost from time immemorial, the fishermen in 
dragging there have been accustomed to bring up pieces of ancient 
pottery, and not unfrequently entire vessels. These are chiefly 
of the fine red or Samian ware. It was at first supposed that 
these marked the site of an extensive manufacture of this ware ; 
but other writers suggested as a more probable explanation that 
some Eoman ships laden with it, perhaps from the potteries 
on the Ehine, had been wrecked in this place, and the notion 
that it was the site of a pottery seems to be abandoned. More 
recently, fragments of this ware having been picked up about the 
Upchurch marshes, I believe in one or two spots rather plentifully, 
it has been supposed that it might have been manufactured there, 
and by experiment it appeared that the clay of the locality was 
capable of being made into similar ware. But the evidence that 
such ware was manufactured there appears to be quite insufficient; 
and the opinion generally received among antiquaries, after all 
the discussion which has taken place, seems to be, that the 
Samian ware was not made in England, but that it was imported 
from the continent. 

The accompanying engraving represents a group of vessels of 
Samian ware found in England ; but it is far from giving any 
notion of the great variety of forms, or the still greater diversity 
of ornament, which they present. Many of the smaller vessels 
are quite plain, or are merely adorned with the ivy-leaf, a very 
favourite ornament on this kind of ware. The characteristic 
moulding is the festoon and tassel, to which the somewhat 
inappropriate term of egg-and-tongue border has been given. The 
subjects represented on the more ornamental vessels are extremely 
varied. Many of them are groups taken from the ancient 
mythology, such as the labours of Hercules, the amours of 
Jupiter, Diana surprised by Actseon, and Actaeon attacked by 
his dogs, Apollo and Daphne, and figures of Venus and other 
personages of ancient fable. Many of the figures and groups 
were evidently copied from some of the well-known masterpieces 
of ancient art; thus we have Jupiter and Leda, an evident 
imitation of a celebrated sculpture at Rome, and the figures of the 
Farnese Hercules, the Apollo Belvidere, and the Venus de 
Medici, are often repeated. Some represent genii, Cupids 
riding upon marine animals, tritons, griffins, and other imaginary 
beings : others again represent domestic scenes, hunting subjects, 



CHAP. VII.] 



SAMIAN POTTERY. 



219 



gladiatorial combats, groups of musicians and dancers, and sub- 
jects of a still more miscellaneous description. In the accom- 
panying cut are given three samples of the more common subjects 




Subjects from Samian "ware. 

— combats of gladiators — the war between the pygmies and the 
cranes — and a dancing scene. Another series of designs com- 
prises scrolls of foliage, fruits, and flowers, arranged in different 
manners, and always with great elegance. A multitude of the 
Samian vases found in this country, as well as other articles, such 
as lamps, bronzes, and even knife-handles, represent licentious 
scenes of the most infamous description. Drinking vessels of this 
class are alluded to by Pliny ;* and their comparative frequency 
in Britain, shows how deeply not only the manners but the vices 
of Eome had been planted in this distant province. 

Almost all vessels in this ware have the name of the potter 
stamped in a label, usually at the bottom, in the inside, but 
sometimes, especially on the embossed bowls, on the outside. The 
name is given in the nominative with f for fecit, or in the 
genitive, with o, or of, or m, for officina or manu : thus sabinvs f. 
Sabinus fecit (Sabinus made it), ahici m., Amid manu (by the 
hand of Amicus), of. felic, officina Felicis (from the workshop of 

* "Inpoculis libidines ccelare juvit ac per obscsenitates bibere." — Plin., Hist. 
Nat., lib. xxxiii., prooem. " Vasa adulteriis ccelata." — 75., lib. xiv., c. 22. 



220 THE ROMANS. [chap. to. 

Felix). These names, of which long lists have been made, are many 
of them Gaulish and German, and they seem to point to the 
countries from whence this class of pottery was derived. In fact, 
potteries of the ware we term Samian have been found in France, 
particularly on the banks of the Rhine, as at Brusche (Bas- 
Rhine), Luxembourg, Saverne (near Strasburg), and especially at 
Rheinzabern, in Bavaria. In these places not only have the 
potters' kilns been found, but the moulds, and the implements 
for stamping borders and names. Some of the moulds from 
Rheinzabern are now preserved in the national museums in Paris. 
These are earthenware bowls, with the figures impressed on the 
inner surface, so that the vessel when formed of soft clay, being 
placed in the mould and pressed in it, took the figures in relief, 
and when dry had shrunk sufficiently to be taken out. Some- 
times the moulds were made in more than one piece, like our 
moulds for plaster-of-Paris casts, but this was only when the 
subjects were in higher relief. The impressions in the moulds 
seem to have been made by a great number of small stamps, each 
containing a single ornament, or a single figure or group, and 
these were varied continually in making the moulds. It is thus 
that we see the same figure often repeated on different examples 
of the pottery with totally different accompaniments. This also 
explains why the figures on the pottery are so seldom sharp and 
fresh ; in the course of making the impressions in the moulds and 
casting from them the impression had become imperfect, and the 
figures look often like impressions in sealing-wax rubbed or bruised. 
The clay seems to have received its redness from some substance 
mixed up with it, which is supposed to have been oxides of iron 
and lead. The kilns found in France appear to have borne a 
general resemblance to those discovered by Mr. Artis. A few 
examples of this red ware, which are now chiefly in the collection 
of Mr. Roach Smith, have been found in England, exhibiting a 
much higher degree of artistic excellence, the figures of which are 
in higher relief than the others, and have not been made with 
the pottery, but moulded separately and then attached to the 
surface of the vessel. This class of pottery is very rare. The 
w r are found in these foreign potteries is identical with that which 
our antiquaries have agreed to call Samian ware in England, it 
evidently came from the same moulds, and the potters' names 
are the same, so that we have little room for doubting that it 



CHAP. VII.] 



OTHER KINDS OF POTTERY. 



221 



was imported into this country. I believe, however, that Mr. Artis 
discovered in the Durobrivian potteries traces of an unsuccessful 
attempt to imitate the foreign red ware. 

Among the examples of pottery found in exploring Eoman sites, 
are many which are totally dis- 
similar to the ware made in the 
great potteries at Upchurch and 
Castor, and which were probably 
derived from other potteries in 
Britain, the sites of which have 
not yet been ascertained. Traces 
of potteries have been noticed, 
I believe, in Lincolnshire and 
other parts, but they have not 
yet been explored. Some of the 
examples alluded to are very pe- 
culiar in character, and of very 
rare occurrence. The two frag- 
ments represented in the annexed 
cut were found at Bichborough ; 
but I understand that similar 
ware has been found in one of the 
Boman stations in Wales. They 
are of a red colour, and are 
stamped with the ornament which, in the first example, is 

evidently a rude copy of the 
festoon and tassel pattern of 
the Samian ware. The lower 
one is curious for its resem- 
blance to the ornamentation of 
the Frankish pottery, which we 
shall describe further on. Our 
next cut represents an urn 
found at York ; it is of a dusky 
grey colour, with a very sin- 
gular ornament in relief, which 
may be described as a frill 
pattern, and which is far from 
inelegant. Two or three sam- 
ples of this pottery may be seen in the York museum, but it- 




Pottery from Richborough. 




Urn, from York. 



222 



THE ROMANS. 



[chap, VII. 



appears to have been found nowhere else, and came probably 
from some manufactory in Yorkshire or Lincolnshire. 

Other potteries produced vessels of a different character, in- 
tended for other purposes than those of which we have been 
speaking. Among the most important of these were the 
amphorse, or wine vessels. They are of large dimensions, and 
strongly made, usually of a reddish yellow colour. There are 
two distinct forms of amphorae. Some are long and slender, and 
very elegantly shaped. The two examples figured here, one of 
which has lost its neck and handles, were dug up at Mount 





Roman Amphorae. 

Bures, near Colchester. The other form of amphora is much 
more spherical in shape, and they are therefore more capacious. 
These are shorter in the neck than the others. Both sorts were 
pointed at the bottom, for the purpose, it is said, of fixing them 
in the earth ; one of our examples, however, has a knob. Numerous 
fragments of broken amphorae are generally found in the rubbish 
pits mentioned in a former chapter; and they occur so abun- 
dantly elsewhere, that we can hardly doubt their being made 



CHAP. YII.] 



AMPHORAE AND MORTARIA. 



223 




in the potteries in Britain. Another class of domestic earthen- 
ware utensils have been termed mortaria, because it is supposed 
that they were used for pounding vegetables and other soft 
articles for the kitchen with a pestle. They are usually made 
of yellow, drab, or fawn-coloured clay, and the surface of the 
interior is often studded with 
small, siliceous stones, broken 
quartz, and scoria of iron, no 
doubt to counteract attrition. The 
one here represented is in the 
possession of Mr. Boaeh Smith, 
and was found in London. It 
is made of clay, kneaded with a 
mixture of about one-third of 
tile, broken small, and it is studded with small white siliceous 
stones. Other examples are shallower, but the general form is 
the same. The names of the potters are often marked on the 
amphorae and mortaria, much in the same way as on the Samian 
ware. It appears from the researches of Mr. Artis, that mortaria 
were made in the Durobrivian potteries. 

Before we leave the subject of pottery, we must not overlook 
one class of vessels, which, though of very rare occurrence in this 
country, are of peculiar interest. They are probably of foreign 
manufacture. They are urns, or jugs, ornamented at the mouth 
with heads, usually of females. The two examples given in 
our cut were found at Bichborough. Each is four inches and a 



A Mortarium. 





Heads of Roman Jars from Richborough (Rutupice). 

half across, so that they have belonged to large vessels. They 
are of brown clay. It has been observed that they are evidently 



224 



THE ROMANS. 



[chap. VII. 




the prototypes of a class of earthenware vessels which were 
popular in the middle ages. The rubbish-pits of Bichborough 
also furnished the museum of Mr. Rolfe of Sandwich with some 
broken terra-cotta statuettes, a class of Roman antiquities which 
are now extremely rare. The Richborough terra- 
cottas were by no means of a low style of execution, 
as works of art, but they were unfortunately all 
fragments. A portion of a figure of Venus, 
represented in our cut, was perhaps the best ; in 
its present state it is four inches high. These 
statuettes were probably imported from Gaul. A 
manufactory of such articles was discovered a few 
years ago near the village of Heiligenberg, about 
three miles from Mutzig, on the Rhine. 

Whenever we open Roman sites, we are as- 
tonished at the quantities of pottery which lie 
scattered about, and we feel convinced that this 
article must have formed a large proportion of the 
furniture of a Roman house. It was used, indeed, 
for a much greater variety of purposes than at 
the present day, and we find many proofs that 
earthenware vases were continually employed as the receptacles 
of money and of a variety of little articles, which we should 
lay up in chests and boxes, or in baskets, bags, caskets, or work- 
boxes. 

There was another manufacture in which the Romans attained 
to great excellence, that of glass, and we are struck not only 
with the extraordinary beauty, but with the endless variety of the 
samples that are continually found on Roman sites. All our 
readers will be familiar with the old story of the accidental disco- 
very of glass-making by the merchants who lit their fires upon the 
sands of the river Belus on the coast of Syria. Pliny gives a 
brief account of the manufacture of glass in his time, from which 
we gather that the great glass furnaces were generally established 
on the sea coast, where a fine sand was found adapted to the 
purpose. In these manufactories the glass was made in lumps, 
in which form it was distributed to the workshops of the workers 
in glass, who melted the lumps as they wanted them, and it was 
then coloured and formed into bottles, vessels, and other articles, 
sometimes by blowing, at other times by grinding on a wheel or 



Terra-cotta 

from 
Richborough. 



chap, vn.] THE GLASS MANUFACTURE. 225 

lathe, and at others by embossing or casting in a mould.* Pliny 
goes on to tell us that the working of glass was carried to such 
a perfection in Rome that the emperor Tiberius put a stop to it, 
lest the precious metals should be thrown into discredit. Sidon 
was the site of the great glass works of antiquity, but the most 
celebrated establishment of the Romans was that situated on the 
coast between Curnae and Lucrinum. In the time of Pliny, glass 
manufactories had been established on the coasts of Spain and Gaul.f 
I have always believed, from the quantity of Roman glass that 
is found in this island, that we should some day trace the exist- 
ence of Roman glass manufactories in Britain, and it is naturally 
to the coast that we must look for them. But I was not aware that 
anything of the sort had yet been observed, until I was recently 
informed by my friend, Augustus Guest, Esq., LL.D., of a very 
curious discovery he had made on the coast at Brighton, the sand 
of which I am told is extremely well calculated for the manufac- 
ture of this article. Dr. Guest tells me that in 1848, as he was 
searching along the shore for specimens of agates, he picked up, 
on that portion of it extending from opposite Kemp town towards 
Rotting or Rotten Dean, several pieces of what, in consequence of 
the attrition to which it had been subjected, appeared, on placing 
them before a strong light, to be coloured pebbles ; but on taking 
them to an intelligent lapidary in the town, he at once recognised 
them as pieces of glass, of which, after a heavy sea, he occasion- 
ally found considerable quantities. He produced several large 
pieces, the colours of which were amethyst, amber, emerald 
green, and deep maroon, the latter colour being the rarest. The 
lapidary was accustomed to cut and polish small sections of the 
glass, and to apply them to ornamental purposes, as brooches, &c. 
The largest piece shown to Dr. Guest was about double the size 
of a man's fist ; it was of an amber colour, and much encrusted by 
marine insects. A large portion of the cliff on this spot has 
evidently given way under the action of the sea, which has here 
encroached considerably on the land, and it is not improbable that 
one of the slips common in the chalk formation, has at some 
distant period carried away with it the remains of one of the 

* Continuis fornacibus ut ses liquatur, massaeque fiunt colore pingui nigricantes. 
Ex massis rursus funditur in officinis, tingiturque, et aliud flatu figuratur, aliud 
torno teritur, aliud argenti modo ccelatur. — Plin. Hist. Nat. lib. xxxvi. c. 26. 

f Jain vero et per Gallias Hispaniasque simili modo arenas tempeiantur. 

Q 



226 



THE ROMANS. 



[chap. VII. 



Bomano-Britisli glass manufactories. The fragments cast upon 
the shore are no doubt parts of the lumps [masses) of the material 
which were sent away hence to the glass- workers in the greater 
towns through the island. Pliny seems to intimate that the mass 
of glass thus sent out was colourless, and that it was coloured 
by the glass-workers, but it seems here to have been made in 
coloured masses, to be still more ready for use. 

From the brittle character of the material, glass vessels are 
found in a perfect state much more seldom than pottery ; indeed, 
perfect specimens are rarely found, except in sepulchral inter- 
ments, where they have been intentionally protected. The shapes 
and uses of vessels of glass were evidently very numerous, and 
one or two only of the forms more worthy of notice are given in the 
accompanying cut. The two vessels to the left are those usually 




^ A,.,y 



j 





ev 



JcMJfl 



Roman Glass Vessels. 



found, with calcined bones, in Eoman sepulchres. They are 
generally of green glass. The three smaller ones to the right are 
also frequently found in sepulchres, and are usually termed 
lachrymatories, from the somewhat romantic notion that they 
were filled with the tears of the mourners ; the received opinion 
among antiquaries at the present day, is that they contained the 
unguents and aromatics which it was usual to depose with the 
dead. The jug in the middle exhibits one of the simpler forms of 
the embossed ornaments on the moulded glass. Some of these are 
elaborate and beautiful, and would present difficulties even to the 
modern glass-makers. This is said to be especially the case with 
a class of round cups or bowls, which are by no means uncommon 
in green, blue, and mixed colours, and which are ornamented 
with projecting pillars. This pillar-moulding was considered to be 
one of the great inventions in modern glass-making, and it was 
not supposed among glass-workers that it was a mere revival 



CHAP. VII.] 



EMBOSSED GLASS. 



227 



of an ornament common among the Romans. The cups alluded 
to are nearly all of the same form, and would be described now as 
sugar-basins, though they were probably drinking cups. The 
annexed cut represents a fragment of one of these cups, given by 




Part of a Roman Glass Bowl or Cup. 

Mr. Roach Smith from the excavations at Richborough ; it is 
engraved the full size of the original. 

In some instances the embossed ornaments were much more 
elaborate, and, as on the ornamental pottery, it extended to figures 
and to inscriptions. This figured glass ware is, however, rare, 
and was no doubt precious. Mr. Roach Smith has published in 




Roman embossed Glass Cup, from Hartlip, Kent. 

his " Collectanea," a fragment of a very remarkable cup in green 

q 2 



228 THE KOMANS. [chap. vii. 

glass, found in the Roman villa at Hartlip in Kent. It is given, 
on the preceding page, from his book, about half the actual size, 
the thin lines indicating the form of the vessel when entire. The 
subjects represented upon it are chariot racing and gladiatorial 
combats, with the names of the charioteers and combatants. The 
figures are in the original somewhat indistinct, and the letters 
so faint, that it is questionable if they are all given correctly. 
Mr. Smith possesses, in his private museum, two similar fragments, 
found in London, one of which is identical with the Hartlip 
fragment in its design, and appears to be from the same mould ; 
the other is from a vessel of a different shape, and has a quadriga 
in bas-relief. We have before had occasion to observe how 
popular the gladiatorial subjects and the games of the circus were 
among the Roman inhabitants of this island, and how often 
we find them represented on the pottery as well as on the glass. 
In the Hartlip glass the charioteer has just reached the goal, which 
is marked by three conical columns of wood raised upon a base. 
This was the usual form of the metce, and is said to have been 
assumed as the imitation of the form of a cypress tree : — 

"Metasque imitata cupressus," 

says Ovid (Metamorph. lib. x. 1. 106). The names here given to the 
charioteers and combatants are probably mere conventional appel- 
lations. A series of gladiatorial subjects are sculptured on one of 
the tombs of Pompeii, with names attached to them in a similar 
manner, although in this instance they appear to have been the 
real names of the individuals represented. The charioteer is here 
driving the biga ; in the other example of embossed glass in the 
possession of Mr. Roach Smith, he rides, as we have stated, the quad- 
riga. It no doubt formed part of a scene from the circus. Embossed 
glass vessels of this description are of the utmost rarity, and I am 
not aware of the existence of any other examples in this country. 
Drinking-cups, with inscriptions, are found not unfrequently. 
It was a trait of Roman sentiment, both on the continent and in 
Britain, to accompany familiar or domestic occupations with 
invocations of happiness or good fortune upon those who took part 
in them, and this seems to have been especially the case in their 
convivial entertainments. Cups have been found with such 
inscriptions as btbe feliciter (drink with good luck !), or bibe 
vt vivas (drink that you may live !), or again vivas bibere (may 



chap, vil] SKILL OF THE ROMAN GLASS WORKERS. 



229 



"%§£ 



you live to drink !). An analogous drinking formula was preserved 
in the middle ages, in the Anglo-Saxon icces hal (be thou in health !). 
Mr. Roach Smith, in his " Collectanea," has given samples of 
cups in red pottery with inscriptions, in white letters, such as 
ave (hail !), vivas (may you live !), bibe (drink), imple (fill). 
In excavations on the site of the Roman villa at Ickleton, in 
Essex, Mr. Neville found a fragment of a drinking-cup of fine 
earthenware, with an inscription, inscribed with a stilus, or some 
sharp instrument, of which there remained the letters camicibibvn, 
no doubt part of the words ex hoc amici bibunt (out of this cup friends 
drink). ' Among fragments picked up in a Roman, and subsequent 
Saxon, cemetery, near Holme Pierrepoint, in Nottinghamshire, 
was part of a small cup of thin yellow glass, with a portion of a 
raised inscription (of which the word sempek only remained), 
above the figure of a bird. The figures in this and most similar 
articles are rather rude, but there are specimens in which the 
execution shows not only a high feeling of art, but also an extra- 
ordinary skill in manipulation on the 
part of the workman. The cut an- 
nexed represents the base of a handle 
to a vase, of fine blue glass, represent- 
ing the head of a female, in very high 
relief. It was dug up in Leadenhall- 
street. in London, and is now in the 
collection of Lord Londesborough. 
Mr. Roach Smith possesses a similar 
fragment in green glass, but of still 
finer execution, also found in London. 

The skill of the Roman glass- workers, 
in the manipulation of their art, is 
shown still more remarkably in the 
manner in which they fused into each 

other pieces of glass of different colours, so as to form the most 
elegant and tasteful patterns. This art was displayed especially 
in the manufacture of glass beads, which are found in considerable 
quantities on Roman sites in this country. They present so many 
varieties in form and colour, that it would be impossible here to 
give any description that could include them all ; yet there are a 
certain number of types which occur more frequently than others, 
and I will give a few of these which have sometimes been 




Embossed Glass. 



230 



THE ROMANS. 



FCHAP. VII. 



misappropriated. The large bead to the left in the accompanying 
group is one of common occurrence, and it and some other Roman 
beads of different forms have been fancifully and very erroneously 
termed druids' beads. They are sometimes found of a large 




Roman Glass Beads. 

size, twice or even thrice the size of the one in our cut. The 
most common forms of Roman glass beads are slight variations 
of the upper figure to the right, which are executed in glass of 
different colours, though most commonly blue, sometimes very 
light, at others of a deep shade, and sometimes of a material 
that has been only imperfectly vitrified. The other bead, in 
which a serpentine ornament is infused into the glass, was 
found among the ruins of Cilurnum in Northumberland. In 
many of these beads of compound colours, the shades are 
exquisitely blended together. Our second cut represents a bead 
and a button, both of glass, found at Kichborough. The bead is 



ff$K 




Roman Glass Bead and Button. 



of blue glass, with white enamel ; the body of the button is dark 
blue, with the central dot red, and the other four light blue. 
Mr. Smith informs us that a considerable number of such buttons, 
but chiefly in plain white and blue glass, have been found with: 



chap, vil] KIMMEEIDGE COAL. 231 

sepulchral remains on the site of a Roman burial ground near 
Boulogne. 

Extensive traces of the manufacture of personal ornaments 
from another material have been discovered in Britain. This 
material was what the Romans seem to have designated by the 
name of g agates, or jet, and which is now popularly called in the 
different localities where it is found, Kennel coal and Kimmeridge 
coal. In our own time Kennel coal has been extensively used in 
the manufacture of ornamental vases, turned on the lathe, and 
other such articles. The articles in jet of the Romans in Britain 
were also made on the lathe, and consisted chiefly of rings, 
amulets, beads, buttons, and similar ornaments, and, as I have 
just said, the traces of the manufactories in one district have been 
discovered. In the wildest and least frequented part of the isle 
of Purbeck, on the coast of Dorset, are two small secluded valleys, 
opening to the sea into what are termed the Kimmeridge and 
Worthbarrow bays, and divided by an intervening ridge of 
considerable elevation. The soil of these valleys, laid out from 
time immemorial in unin closed pastures, has never been disturbed 
by the ploughshare, and when for any accidental purpose it is dug, 
at a few inches under the surface are found great numbers of 
small, round, and flat pieces of a mineral substance, found in 
extensive beds on this part of the coast, and known by the name 
of Kimmeridge coal. It is a bituminous shale, which burns freely, 
with a white ash and slaty residue, diffusing a disagreeable 
bituminous odour, in this respect answering to Pliny's description 
of the gagates. The round pieces found in such abundance in 
these localities are generally from a quarter to half an inch thick, 
and from an inch and a quarter to two inches and a half in 
diameter, with beveled and moulded edges, and having on one 
side, two, three, or four round holes, and on the other side a small 
pivot hole. In a few instances these round holes are absent, and 
the pieces are wholly perforated with a single central square hole. 

A. single glance at these articles is sufficient to convince any 
one acquainted with the use of the lathe, that they are simply the 
refuse pieces of the turner, the nuclei of rings and other articles 
formed by his art. The round holes were evidently made to 
attach the piece of material on the point of the chuck ; and the 
square one was for fixing it on a small square mandril-head ; 
circumstances, it has been observed, which prove that the people 



232 THE KOMANS. [chap. vii. 

who made these articles were well accustomed to the use of the 
lathe, not in its primitive rude form, but as an improved and, in 
some degree, perfected instrument. Much irregularity is 
observable in the number of the holes. The greater number 
hitherto found have two holes ; while pieces with four holes are 
rare, and generally of a small size. Fragments of the raw 
material are frequently found mixed with these round pieces. 
Some of these show the marks of cutting tools, as if prepared for 
the lathe, whilst the shale, being fresh from the quarry, was 
comparatively soft. Others exhibit lines, angles, circles, and 
other figures, drawn with mathematical accuracy, the central 
point, in which one, leg of the compasses was inserted, being often 
visible. Pieces of rings of the same material, and sometimes a 
perfect ring, are also found scattered about ; so that we cannot 
have the least doubt that here existed once an extensive manufac- 
tory of this material. Fragments of Roman pottery, mixed here 
and there with these remains, fix the date to which they belong. 
Yet, with all these facts before them, our antiquaries of the old 
school have remained blind to their real character, and it was 
gravely conjectured, and even asserted, that these refuse pieces 
from the Roman lathe had been manufactured to serve the 
purposes of money by Phoenician traders, who came in the remote 
ages of the world to trade with the primeval Celts,* 

Articles of this material seem to have had a peculiar value 
from the circumstance that it was supposed, as we are told by 
Pliny, to possess the virtue of driving away serpents. Probably 
future discoveries will bring to light similar manufactories in other 
parts of the island, and it is not unlikely that they continued to 
exist through the earlier Anglo-Saxon period. Bede describes 
the gagates as being in his time an important production of 
Britain, and he speaks of its quality, when burnt, of driving away 
serpents, and tells us how, when warmed with rubbing, it has the 
same attractive quality as amber.f In interments, chiefly of the 



* The real character of these remains was, I believe, first pointed out by the 
late Mr. Sydenham, a gentleman known to antiquaries by his contributions to the 
Archseologia on Dorsetshire barrows. The notion of their being made by 
Phoenician merchants, to represent money, and of their being used also in the 
religious worship of the natives of Britain, was set forth, among others, by Mr. 
Miles, in an appendix to the account of the Deverill barrow. 

f Gignit et lapidem gagatem plurimum optimumque ; est autem nigrogem- 



chap, yil] USE OF MINERAL COAL. 233 

Eoman period, and on Roman sites, rings and other articles of 
the Kimmeridge or Kennel coal have been found. 

The Romans were more attentive to the utility of the mineral 
productions of our island than we are accustomed to suppose. There 
cannot be a doubt that they knew the use of mineral coals, and that 
they employed them, but they only obtained them where the coal- 
bed was near the surface, and the coal was probably burnt chiefly 
in the district where it was found. Mineral coal has been sup- 
posed to be referred to by Solinus, when he tells us that Minerva 
was the patron of the warm springs in Britain, alluding apparently 
to Bath, and that the fire that burnt on her altars did not fall 
into white ashes, but as the fire wasted away it turned into stony 
globules. * A more unequivocal proof of the use of this fuel is, how- 
ever, furnished by the fact that the cinders of mineral coal have 
been not unfrequently found in the fire-places of Roman houses and 
villas in different parts of the island. Mr. Bruce assures us that in 
nearly all the stations on the line of the wall of Hadrian, " the 
ashes of mineral fuel have been found ; in some, a store of 
unconsumed coal has been met with, which, though intended to 
give warmth to the primeval occupants of the isthmus, has been 
burnt in the grates of the modern English. In several places the 
source whence the mineral was procured can be pointed out ; but 
the most extensive workings that I have heard of, are in the 
neighbourhood of Grindon Lough, near Sewingshields. Not long 
ago, a shaft was sunk, with the view of procuring the coal which 
was supposed to be below the surface; the projector soon found 
that, though coal had been there, it was all removed. The 
ancient workings stretched beneath the bed of the lake." 

The metals of Britain formed, we know, the great proportion of 
its exports, under the Roman occupation. They consisted chiefly 
of iron, lead, tin, and copper. Round pigs of the last-mentioned 
metal, belonging to the Roman period, have been found in Wales, 
whence, and from Cornwall, the Romans derived their chief 
supply. One of these, still preserved at Mostyn Hall, in the 

meus et ardens igni admotus ; incensus serpentes fugat, attritu calefactus applicita 
detinet seque ut succinum. Bede, Hist. Eccl. lib. i, c. 1. It must be stated that 
Bede's account is taken almost literally from Solinus. 

* Quibus fontibus praesul est Minervse numen, in cujus asde perpetui ignes 
nunquam canescunt in favillas, sed ubi ignis tabuit, vertit in globos saxeos. 
Solini Polyhist. c. 22. 



234 THE ROMANS. [chap. vii. 

county of Flint, bears the inscription socio eomae, which has not 
been satisfactorily explained. Iron was obtained by the Romans 
in vast quantities from various parts of the island, though the 
principal Roman iron-works were in the wooded district of the 
country of the Silures, now called the Forest of Dean, and the 
extensive forest of Anderida, forming the modern weald of Sussex 
and Kent. Traces of the Roman occupation are found abun- 
dantly in both these districts. In various places in Sussex, as in 
the parishes of Maresfield, Sedlescombe, and Westfield, immense 
masses of ancient iron scoriae, or slag, are found. At Oaklancls, 
in Sedlescombe, there is a mass of very considerable extent, 
which, on being cut into for materials for road-making, was 
ascertained to be not less than twenty feet deep. The period to 
which they belong, is proved, by the frequent discovery of Roman 
coins and pottery intermixed with the cinders. At Maresfield, 
especially, the fragments of Roman pottery and other articles are 
so abundant, that, as we are informed by Mr. M. A. Lower, of 
Lewes, who first laid these facts before the public, when one of 
these cinderbeds was removed, scarcely a barrow-load of cinders 
could be examined without exhibiting several fragments. The 
material for the Roman furnaces was the clay ironstone, from the 
beds between the chalk and oolite of this district, which is found 
in nodular concretions, consisting often of an outer shell of 
iron ore, with a nucleus of sand. These are found near the 
surface of the ground, and the Romans dug small pits from which 
they extracted these nodules, and carried them to the furnaces, 
which stood in the immediate vicinity. These pits are still found 
in considerable groups, covered almost always with a thick wood, 
and the discovery of pottery, &c, leaves us no room to doubt that 
they are Roman works. Large as the Sussex works seem to have 
been, those in the forest of Dean, and more especially along the 
banks of the Wye, appear to have been much more extensive. 
Here the ground for miles rests upon one immense continuous 
bed of iron cinders, the antiquity of which is proved by the occa- 
sional discovery of Roman coins and other remains, with unmis- 
takeable traces of Roman settlements. The ore is here of a much 
richer description, and lies in veins at no great depth under the 
ground. The Romans sank a larger pit until they came to the 
vein of metal, which they then followed in its course, and thus 
excavated caverns and chambers underground, extending often to 



chap, vil] PEOCESS OF SMELTING IRON. 235 

some hundred feet. In the neighbourhood of Coleford these 
ancient excavations are called Scowles — a term of which the 
derivation is not very evident. They are often looked upon 
with a superstitious feeling, and have received names from it. 
Thus, in a hill on the banks of the Wye, called the Great 
Doward, is an extensive Roman iron mine, popularly called 
" King Arthur's Hall," at the bottom of which tradition says a 
chest of treasure is concealed. In this district the river Wye 
formed a convenient medium of transport, and either the pure ore, 
or the iron in its first, rough state, was carried up the Severn 
as high at least as the present city of Worcester, where large 
beds of iron scoriae with Roman remains have been discovered. 
We have already (see p. 140) quoted a tradition which describes 
the Roman Alauna (Alcester, in Warwickshire) as a town of iron 
workers. Traces of Roman iron- works are met with in various 
other parts of Britain. Large beds of cinders, or, as they are 
technically termed, slag, mixed with Roman remains, have been 
found in Northumberland and, I understand, in Yorkshire. 

The process of smelting among the Romans appears to have 
been simple and imperfect. The fuel used was charcoal, pieces of 
which are often found impressed in the cinders. It is supposed that 
layers of iron ore, broken up, and charcoal, mixed with lime-stone 
as a flux, were piled together, and inclosed in a wall and covering 
of clay, with holes at the bottom for letting in the draught, and 
allowing the melted metal to run out. For this purpose they were 
usually placed on sloping ground. Rude bellows were perhaps 
used, worked by different contrivances.* In Sussex, and in the 

* This primitive mode of smelting is still in use among some peoples unac- 
quainted with the improvements of civilised nations. We are told by the early 
Spanish writers, that the Peruvians built their furnaces for smelting silver on 
eminences where the air was freest ; they were perforated on all sides with holes, 
through which the air was driven when the wind blew, which was the only time 
when the work could be carried on, and under each hole was made a projection 
of the stonework, on which was laid burning coals to heat the air before it entered 
the furnace. 

The smelting furnaces for iron in the Himmaleh mountains of central Asia are 
described as follows : — A chimney is built of clay, about four feet and a half high, 
by fifteen to eighteen inches in diameter, upon a stage of stonework, over a fire- 
place. In an opening below the stage there is a hole, through which the metal 
when melted flows, and this is stopped with clay or earth, easily removed with an 
iron poker. The fire is blown with two pair of bellows, each made of a goats' 
skin, and worked by a woman or boy. The iron ore was mixed with pounded 
charcoal, and thrown into the chimney. A somewhat similar tower of clay was 



236 THE ROMANS. [chap. vh. 

Forest of Dean, they appear to have been worked by means of 
water, at least in some of the streams in those districts remains 
of ancient tanks are found, which are supposed to have been made 
to collect the water for that purpose. Mr. Bruce, in his account 
of the " Roman Wall," has pointed out a very curious contrivance 
for producing a blast in the furnaces of the extensive Roman iron- 
works in the neighbourhood of Epiacum (Lanchester). A part of 
the valley, rendered barren by the heaps of slightly covered 
cinders, had never been cultivated till very recent times. 
" During the operation of bringing this common into cultivation," 
Mr. Bruce says, "the method adopted by the Romans of pro- 
ducing the blast necessary to smelt the metal was made apparent. 
Two tunnels had been formed in the side of a hill ; they were 
wide at one extremity, but tapered off to a narrow bore at the 
other, where they met in a point. The mouths of the channels 
opened towards the west, from which quarter a prevalent wind 
blows in this valley, and sometimes with great violence. The 
blast received by them would, when the wind was high, be poured 
with considerable force and effect upon the smelting furnaces at 
the extremity of the tunnels." 

Any one who takes one of these ancient cinders in his hand, 
will be at once convinced by its weight how imperfect had been 
the process of smelting, and how much metal still remains in it. 
During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries the Roman iron 
scoriae in the Forest of Dean and in Worcestershire, were re- 
smelted on a very extensive scale ; and it is said that, being 
gathered with so little trouble, they were actually found more 
profitable than fresh ore which had to be dug from a considerable 
depth in the ground. Besides the marks of charcoal still visible 
on some of the cinders, examples occur which show the effects of 
the irregular heat produced by this fuel. One, which I picked up 
among a vast heap of cinders at Sedlescombe, in Sussex, proved 
by coins found in it to be Roman, exhibits a curious appearance 
of a compact mass with veins and drusy cavities with crystalline 
iron ; in this instance an imperfect steel or carburet of iron has 
been the result of the excessive heat produced by the wood fuel. 

made for smelting by an African people, visited by Mungo Park, but they trusted 
partly to the wind for a blast, and placed the iron ore, after it had been broken 
into pieces of the size of a hen's egg, in alternate layers with charcoal. See 
further on this subject, Scrivener's " Comprehensive History of the Iron Trade." 



chap, vii.] THE LEAD MANUFACTURE. 237 

Among the other principal metallic productions of our island, 
worked by the Eomans, were lead and tin, called by the Romans, 
plumbum nigrum and plumbum album. The latter we know was, 
under its Greek name of cassiteros, the chief and most valuable 
production of the Britannic isles at a very remote period, and pro- 
cured for them the name of the Cassiterides, or Tin Islands. 
We are told by ancient writers that lead was found so plentifully, 
and so near the surface of the ground, that it was found necessary 
in the earlier period of the Roman occupation to make a law 
limiting the quantity to be taken each year.* The tin districts were, 
as at present, Cornwall and Wales, and I believe that Roman 
mines have been traced, and that blocks of Roman tin have been 
found, though they are of extreme rarity. This, however, is not 
the case with lead ; for the traces of Roman lead mines are very 
numerous, and pigs of lead, with the official stamps of the Roman 
miners, are by no means of uncommon occurrence. This stamp 
usually consisted of an inscription giving the name of the emperor 
under whose reign the lead had been produced from the furnace. 
The annexed cut represents one of these pigs of lead, found in 




Roman Pig of Lead, from Hampshire. 

1783, on the verge of Broughton brook, near Stockbriclge, in 
Hampshire. It will serve to give a general idea of the form and 
character of these articles, and it has a certain historical interest 
from the circumstance that it was made the year before the insur- 
rection of Boadicea. The main inscription is, neronis avg-. ex 
kian iiti cos beit. On one side are the letters hvl pmcos ; on the 
other, ex argent and capascas, with the numeral xxx.f Other 

* In Britannia summo terrse corio adeo large, ut lex ultro dicatur, ne plus 
certo modo fiat. — Plin. Hist. Nat., lib. xxxv., c. 17. 

f Mr. Roach Smith observes on this inscription . — " As Nero never assumed 
the title of Britannicus, and as the numerals precede the cos, I suspect the 
inscription should be read — 

(Plumbum or Metallum) Neronis Aug. cos. iiii. ? Ex. Kian. Brit. 
The P.M. Cos may belong to the above, and the rest be the name of some 
superintendent." 



238 THE ROMAN'S. [chap, vil 

examples found at different times have presented the following 
inscriptions : — 

1. TI CLAVDIVS CAESAR AVG P M TRIB P VIII IMP XVI DE BRITAN 

2. IMP DOMIT AVG GER DE CEANG 

3. CAESARI VADOM 

4. IMP CAES DOMITIAN AVG COS VII BRIG 

5. IMP VESP VII T IMP V COS DE CEANG 

6. TI CL TR LVT BR EX ARG 

7. IMP CAES HADRIANI AVG MET LVT 

8. IMP HADRIANI AVG 

9. IMP DYOR AVG ANTONINI ET VERI ARMENIACORVM 

10. L ARVCONI VERECVND METAL LVTVD 

11. C IVL PROTI BRIT LVT EX ARG 

The greater number of these inscriptions, it will be seen at once, 
commemorate the emperor in whose reign each was made. The 
two last, no doubt, give us the names of private individuals, either 
governors of the province, or persons appointed to superintend 
the mines of Britain. Some of the words of these inscriptions 
have provoked rather long disquisitions, yet they are capable of a 
simple explanation, lvt is no doubt an abbreviation of latum, 
washed, in reference to the process through which the metal 
(met) had passed ; and the ex arg, or ex argent, is explained 
by a passage of Pliny, who informs us that lead was found under 
two different forms, either in veins by itself, or mixed with 
silver. # The latter had to go through a more complicated 
process of extraction, which is referred to by the words of the 
inscription, lutum ex argento, and which it seems the Romano- 
British metallurgist considered it necessary to specify. The 
examples on which the words brig and de ceang occur, were 
found chiefly in Cheshire and Yorkshire, and these words are 
supposed to signify that they came from the tribe of the Ceangi, 
or Cangi, and the Brigantes. The words ex kiak on the pig of 
lead represented in our cut, are supposed to refer to the same 
tribe of the Ceangi, by an earlier mode of spelling the name. It 
had no doubt been left in Hampshire on its way to the coast for 
exportation. 

It is indeed difficult in many cases to form any opinion relating 
to these relics from the place where they were found. Three of 
them were found near Matlock, in Derbyshire, no doubt in the 

* Plumbi nigri origo duplex est ; ant enim sua provenit vena, nee quicquam 
aliud ex se parit ; aut cam argento nascitur, mistisque venis confiatur. — Plin. 
'Mist. Nat., lib. xxxiv., c. 16. 



chap, vil] GOLD, SILVEH, AND BRONZE. 239 

neighbourhood of the mines from which they were taken. They 
have been found also in Shropshire, near the site of ancient 
lead mines. The inscriptions are curious, as belonging mostly 
to the earlier emperors and showing that the metallic riches of 
Britain were among its first resources turned to account by the 
Roman conquerors. 

The wording of some of the above inscriptions is sufficient 
evidence that the Romans obtained silver from the mines in 
Britain, and the island province appears also to have furnished gold, 
though probably in very small quantities. Gold has been traced 
in the quartz formation near Lampeter, in Wales, in the imme- 
diate neighbourhood of a Roman settlement, where enormous 
mounds of broken and pounded quartz remain as memorials of 
the Roman gold diggers. A still more curious memorial, per- 
haps, of the British silver mines was discovered in the latter part 
of the last century, among remains of very old masonry cleared 
away in digging the foundations of the then new office for the 
Board of Ordnance, in the Tower of London. It had apparently 
been a square ingot of silver, about three-eighths of an inch 
thick, but it had subsequently been beaten at each end with a 
hammer, till the whole had assumed the form of a double wedge. 
From its weight, when found, there could be little doubt of its 
having been originally a Roman pound of silver. In the middle, 
on one side, within a simple square label, was the inscription : — 

EX OFII 
HONORI 

in which the last letters of each line had been partly effaced, 
probably by a blow of the hammer. It seems doubtful if the 
Honorius here commemorated was an officer of the Roman 
mint in Britain, or the emperor of that name ; though the proba- 
bility seems to be turned in favour of the latter by the discovery 
close by it of three gold coins, one of which was of the emperor 
Honorius, while the two others belonged to his partner in the 
empire, Arcadius.* In this case, it would belong to the closing 
period of the Roman rule in Britain. 

The metal most . in favour among the Romans for the manu- 
facture of useful and ornamental articles, appears to have been 

* This ingot of silver and the three coins are engraved in the fifth volume of 
the " Archseologia " of the Society of Antiquaries. 



240 THE ROMANS. [chap yii. 

bronze. It would extend beyond our limits, and be of no real 
practical utility, to give a description of the almost endless 
variety of articles of bronze belonging to the Roman period, 
which have been found in this country, some of very rude work- 
manship, and others showing a very high state of art. It is not 
possible to say how many of these articles were made in Britain, 
and how many were imported, but there can, I think, be little doubt 
that such articles were manufactured here in considerable quantities. 
As the rough, unformed glass was distributed from the manu- 
factory to the small glass workers, so the bronze w 7 as probably 
sold in lumps to small manufacturers, who, either with the hand, 
or more frequently by melting it into moulds, formed statuettes, 
vessels of various kinds, ornaments, tools, and toys, under which 
latter head I suspect we ought to place a large number of the 
small, rude figures of animals, &c, in bronze, which are fre- 
quently found on Roman sites. I believe that the fragments of 
old bronze with chisels and other implements of the same 
metal, already described (p. 73), as found in different parts of 
England, belonged to the Roman workers in bronze. Smelting 
pots, with remains of molten bronze, and lumps of the same 
metal, and even entire foundries, with moulds and the articles 
cast in them, have been found in different parts of Germany, 
as at Demmin, in Mecklenburg ; Gross Jena, in Thuringen ; 
Braunfels, in Hessen ; and at Zurich, in Switzerland ; and, I 
believe, in France ; and, if I am not mistaken, they will be found 
to have been discovered in localities occupied by the Romans. 

That Roman art did flourish to a certain degree in Britain, we 
have proofs in the various traces of ornamental decoration in 
the houses, in articles of bronze and other material, and in the 
remains of statuary. Some few fragments of wall-paintings that 
have been rescued from the general destruction of the frescoes of 
the Roman houses, are artistically executed ; and, although many 
of the sepulchral and other sculptures found in our island are of 
a rude character, others are quite the contrary. It is probable 
that most of the finer pieces of sculpture in marble, found in the 
Roman villas and elsewhere, were executed abroad ; but other 
similar remains of great beauty have been found sculptured in 
materials w r hich were undoubtedly obtained in the island, and 
generally near the spot where they seem to have been erected. 
Such were the statues, which exhibit a very high degree of art, 



chap, vil] THE MEDICAL PROFESSION. 241 

found by Mr. Artis in 1844, 1845, and 1846, near Sibson, in 
Bedfordshire, and at a place between Wansford and King's Cliff, 
in the same county, known as Bedford Purlieus, which were 
formed of the oolite of the district, popularly known as Barnack 
rag. They are now preserved in the collection of the Duke of 
Bedford, and include large portions of figures of Hercules, Apollo, 
and Minerva Custos. At Birrens, in Scotland, was found a dedi- 
catory inscription, by Julius Cerealis Censorinus, who is described 
as the image-maker (sigillarius), or fabricator of the statues of the 
gods, to the college of ligniferi ; and the mutilated trunk of a 
colossal statue of Mercury, found at the same spot, was supposed 
to be a relic of his works. 

Of the other professions of the Romans in Britain, we find, 
from their very nature, fewer traces among existing remains, 
though one or two of them are commemorated in inscriptions. 
Thus, a votive statue to the goddess Brigantia, found at Birrens 
in Scotland, was dedicated, if not made, by Amandus the 
architect. A monumental stone, found at Housesteads in North- 
umberland, commemorates a young medical practitioner, Anicius 
Ingenuus, physician in ordinary to the first cohort of the 
Tungrians.* 

There is, however, a class of monuments relating to the Roman 
medical profession and their practice in Britain, which are so 
curious, that they require a more minute description and explana- 
tion. These are the stamps used for impressing the names of 
the makers and the purposes of certain medicinal preparations. 

Numerous examples of these medicine stamps have been 
found in Germany, France, and Italy, as well as in Britain ; 
and in the former countries they have been the subject of several 
learned treatises. t They are usually made of a greenish schist, 
or steatite, and consist of a small thin square block, generally 
with an inscription on each of the four edges. In a few instances 

* D M ANICIO INGENVO MEDICO ORDI COH PRIMAE TVNGR VIX AN XXV. 

+ Two French writers especially have recently written at length on this subject ; 
M. Sichel, in a tract entitled Cinq Cachets inedits de Medecins-Oculistes 
Romains (Paris, 1845), and M. Duchalais, Observations sitr les Cachets des 
Medecins-Oculistes anciens, a-propos de cinq Pierres sigillaires inedites (Paris, 
1846). Still more recently an interesting paper on the Roman medicine stamps 
found in Britain has been contributed to the " Monthly Journal of Medical 
Science,' ' by professor Simpson, of Edinburgh, but a part only of which has, as far 
as I can learn, been yet printed. 

E, 



242 



THE ROMANS. 



[CHAP. VII. 



the stone is of an oblong form, and has only two inscribed sides. 
The inscriptions are inverse and retrograde, and they were 
evidently intended as stamps ; but when first noticed, they were 
a great puzzle to the antiquary. The example given in our cut, 
which was found a few years ago at Kenchester in Herefordshire 
(Magna), belongs to the former of these two classes. The in- 
scription usually expresses the name of the maker of the 




Roman Medicine Stamp from Kenchester (Magna). 

medicine, that of the medicine itself, and the disease for which it 
was intended as a specific. From the places in which they are 
found, the name appears to be generally that of a medical 
practitioner in one of the principal towns, who composed the 
medicines, and, perhaps, sold them in packages to the minor 
practitioners or dealers in the smaller towns and in the country, 
in the manner that patent medicines used to be sold in England. 
It is somewhat remarkable, that in all the examples yet found, 
amounting in number to at least sixty, the diseases are 
uniformly those of the eyes, and hence they are supposed to 
have been only used by physicians who treated that very numerous 
class of diseases, and some writers have spoken of them by the 
name of oculists' stamps.* 

Any one who will turn to the index to an ordinary edition 
of Pliny's Natural History, will see at one glance how much 
attention the Romans gave to diseases of the eyes, which appear 
to have been extraordinarily prevalent, not only in Italy, but 
throughout the western provinces. This is probably to be attri- 
buted to some circumstance connected with the diet or manners 
of the ancients. The Greek medical writers enumerate more 
than two hundred diseases of the eyes, for which an immense 

* Medici ocularii and medici ophthalmici are mentioned by the Roman 
medical writers in a manner to make us believe that this formed a special branch 
of the practice. 



chap, vil] MEDICINE STAMPS. 243 

number of different ointments, or collyria, were invented. The 
reader will remember the lines of Horace — 

" Hie oculis ego nigra meis collyria lippus 
Illinere." 

These collyria were composed of a great number of ingredients, 
and were many of them celebrated among all physicians by their 
particular names. These were sometimes taken from those of 
the original inventors, as the collyrium of Dionysius, or the 
collyrium of Sergius. A more numerous class received their names 
from the characteristic of the mixture or from some particular 
ingredient. Thus we have the collyrium Moron, named from its 
green colour ; the cirrhon, from its yellow tint ; the evodes 
(eitobes), from its pleasant smell; the anicetum (clvlkwtov, 
invincible), because pretended to be superior to all the others ; 
the crocodes, made of crocus or saffron ; the nardinum, con- 
taining spikenard ; the diasmyrnes, containing myrrh ; the 
diarrhodon, containing roses ; and so on. The example given 
above, which was found at Kenchester, had belonged to a 
physician named apparently Titus Vindacius Ariovistus, who, to 
judge from his name, appears to have been of German race. Od 
the upper surface is the word senior, the first three letters of 
which are repeated on the lower surface, and it has been suggested 
that it was probably the name of a subsequent possessor. The 
four inscriptions of the sides, which are in double lines, are — 

(1) T . VINDAC . ARIO 
VISTIANICET 

(2) T . VINDACTAR 
OVISTI . NARD 

(3) . . VINDAC . ARI 
OVISTICHLORON 

(4) T . VINDACARIO 
VISTI . . . 

The name of the collyrium, indicated in the last, has been lost by 
a fracture of the stone. The other three w T ere the anicetum, the 
nardinum, and the Moron, well known collyria, all mentioned above. 
Another of these stamps, found at Cirencester in 1818, is now 
in the possession of P. B. Purnell, Esq., of Stanscombe Park, 
Gloucestershire. It is an oblong piece of hone-stone, or whet- 

r 2 



244 THE ROMANS. [chap. to. 

slate, with two sides inscribed, which commemorate a physician 
named Minervalis. They are — 

(1) MINEEVALISDIALEB 
ANVMADIMPETLIPEXOV 

(2) MINERVALISMELINV 
ADOMNEMDOLOREM 

The dialebanum was composed with the plant ledanum or 
ladanum found in Crete, and it is here directed to be used with 
egg (ex ovo) on the first attack of lippitudo — ad impetum lippitu- 
dinis. The second was a well-known collyrium, which is men- 
tioned by the old medical writers under the same name of 
melinum, but the origin of the name seems very doubtful. 
Another medicine stamp was found at Bath in 1781. A fourth 
was dugup at Gloucester (not, as some writers have stated by 
mistake, at Colchester), at the beginning of the last century, and 
was published by Chishull. It bore the name of the physician, 
Quintus Julius Murranius, and had two inscriptions — 

(1) QIVLIMVRRANIMELI 
NVMADCLARITATEM 

(2) QIVLMVRRANISTACTV 
MOPOBALSAMATADCAL 

The first of these was another melinum, which was to be efficacious 
for producing clearness of vision — ad claritatem. The second 
was an opobalsamic stactum, or liquid (from orafco), intended as 
a remedy for dimness of sight — ad caliginem. In 1808, a 
medicine stamp of an unusual form was found at Wroxeter in 
Shropshire (Uriconium) ; it was a round, instead of quadrangular, 
stone, with the inscription on the face, as in a seal. It was 
accordingly engraved and published in the " Gentleman's 
Magazine," as "an ancient seal found at Wroxeter," and the 
inscription as there given, evidently incorrectly, was — 

IBCLM 
DIALBA 
IAD'OM 
NEAVNC 
O EXO 

It is impossible from this incorrect copy to tell who was the 
physician of Uriconium, whose dialebanum was a specific ad 



chap, vil] MEDICINE STAMPS. 245 

omnem and was to be applied, like the dialebanum of 

Minervalis, ex ovo, with egg* 

It is curious that we have thus a series of these medicine 
stamps belonging to the great Roman towns in the west, 
Corinium, Aquae Solis, Glevum, Magna, and Uriconium. None 
have yet been found, as far as we have any distinct information, 
in the Eoman towns of the eastern and northern parts of the 
island, but there are two, or at least fragments of two, preserved 
in the British Museum, which are stated to have been found in 
this country, although the exact locality is not known. One of 
these is a flat quadrilateral stone, and commemorates a physician 
named Sextus Julius Sedatus. It is inscribed only on three sides ; 
which is also the case with at least one of the foreign examples. 
The inscriptions are — 

(1) SEXIVLSEDATI 
CROCODPACCIAN 

(2) SEXIVLSEDATICRO 
CODESDIALEPIDOS 

(3) ... IVLSEDATICEO 
. . . ESADDIATHES 

These collyria were all of the class already mentioned as taking 
its name crocodes from one of its ingredients, the crocus or saffron. 
The first was distinguished by the name Paccianiim, from its 
inventor, Paccius, a celebrated ancient oculist, several of whose 
medicines, as well as this identical crocodes Paccianiim, are 
mentioned by Galen. The crocodes dialepidos, the second on our 
stamp, is also mentioned by the ancient medical writers, and 
derived its name from the circumstance that it contained the 
scales (AeTuSes) of burnt copper, or the black peroxide of that 
metal. The second stamp in the British Museum, which is 
evidently a mere fragment, bears the letters — 

COLLYRT-CLOC 

They are probably to be read collyrium post caliginem oculorum, 

* This curious medicine stamp has been given more recently in Mr. Hartshorne's 
Salopia Antiqua, where the inscription has been made less intelligible by placing 
stops between the letters where there are none in the original. It is to be regretted 
that in a book printed so late as the year 1841 a monument of this kind should be 
designated as " an amuletal seal ; " and that we should be told that " it has hitherto 
baffled the endeavours of those who have attempted to explain it." This stamp is 
described as being a circular jadz stone, seven- eighths of an inch in diameter, and a 
quarter of an inch thick. 



246 THE ROMANS. [chap. vii. 

a collyrium to be used after an attack of dimness of the eyes. 
The Museum of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, at 
Edinburgh, contains one of the oblong medicine stamps, which 
was found at Tranent in East Lothian, near Inveresk, the site of 
an extensive Roman town. It had belonged to an oculist named 
Lucius Vallatinus. The two inscriptions are — 

(1) LVALLATTNIEVODESADCI 
CATRICESETASPRITVDIN 

(2) LVALLATINIAPALOCRO 
CODESADDIATHESIS 

The first was the collyrium named evodes, and was a remedy 
against cicatrices of the eyes and granulations of the eyelids. The 
second was some modification of the usual character of the 
crocodes (apalocrocodes), which has been interpreted " a mild 
crocodes," used as a general remedy against affections of the 
eyes — ad diatheses* The person who cut the inscription has 
made an error in the termination of the last word. 

It has been supposed by writers on the subject of these stamps, 
that the various preparations were hardened with gum or some 
viscid substance, and kept in a solid state to be liquefied with 
fluids when required for use; the stamps being impressed just 
before the medicines attained the last stage of solidification. 
The Cirencester stamp is said to have been found in a Roman 
urn, but no further particulars of the discovery have been pre- 
served. It is a curious circumstance that Caylus (vol. vii. p. 261) 
has given the rim of an earthen vessel marked by one of these 
medicine stamps, which might be supposed to indicate that the 
mark was intended to be placed on the vessel containing the 
medicine, and not on the medicine itself. But this may have 
arisen from some accident which we cannot now explain, and the 
circumstances under which the stamps are generally found seem 
to contradict such an inference. 

Of Roman trades, in this island, we have fewer indications even 

* An account of this stamp was first communicated by Mr. Daniel Wilson 
(now Dr. Wilson), Secretary of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, to the 
"Journal of the Archaeological Association," vol. v., p. 351, where an editorial 
note has been added, somewhat hastily, to state that " diathesis can only imply a 
particular state of the body disposing to any disease, and not mean the disease 
itself." This is the use of the word in modern medicine, but the ancient physicians 
used it in the sense of an affection or disease. It is often quite as useful to the 
student in science to point out an error, as to state a truth. 



CHAP. VII.] 



SIGN OF A GOLDSMITH'S SHOP. 



247 



than of professions. It is probable that the Roman tradesman 
was seldom commemorated in a sepulchral inscription. Mr. 
Roach Smith found in a very ancient rubbish-pit, deep under the 
site of the Royal Exchange, in the city of London, the refuse 
of the shops of Roman shoemakers, weavers, and workers in 
other such handicrafts. I owe to the pencil of the same zealous 
and skilful antiquary the sketch of a monument of a still more 
remarkable character — the sign of a Roman goldsmith, still 
remaining amid the ruins of a town at Old Malton in Yorkshire, 
which probably represents the Roman Derventio. It is a large 
stone, which has apparently been let into a wall, and bears on 




Goldsmith's Sign, from Old Malton (Derventio?). 

one face, within a label, an inscription which seems to commemo- 
rate the shop of a goldsmith named Servulus. The inscription is 
as follows — not very correct in its Latinity : — 

FELICITERSIT 
GENIO LOCI 
SERVULE'VTERE 
FELIXTABERN 
AM AVREFI 
CINAM 

I have had occasion more than once to allude to the practice of 
the Romans of invocating good fortune on every occasion.* The 



* These invocations were used in private houses, as well as in shops, and are 
sometimes joined with the name of the possessor. Thus, a mutilated Roman 



248 THE ROMANS. [chap. vn. 

sign of an artisan here begins with an invocation to the presiding 
genius or spirit of the locality, — a propitiation to the divinity of 
the spot on which he settled, that his undertakings there might 
prosper, — and next comes the wish that the owner of the shop 
may have good fortune in his profession. Mr. Wellbeloved has 
published the fragment of the commencement of an inscribed 
stone, found at York, and containing the words — 

GENIO LOCI 
FELICITER 

which he believed to be part of a votive tablet. But on com- 
paring it with the complete inscription found at Old Mai ton, I 
am inclined to think that this also may have formed part of a 
tradesman's sign. 

tesselated pavement found at Salzburg, in Germany, presented the following frag- 
ment of an inscription (the name of the person is lost) : — 

HIC HABITAT 

NIHIL INTRET MALI 

i. e. ( ) divells here — may nothing evil enter. This supports our interpre- 
tation of the inscription on the Thruxton pavement. (See before, p. 204.) 



chap, vin.] THE PEOPLE OF BRITAIN. 249 



CHAPTER VIII. 

Ethnological Character of the Roman Population of Britain — Countries from 
which it was derived — The Auxiliary Troops — Names and Birthplaces of 
Individuals — Traces of Languages ; Inscribed Pottery ; the Roundels found 
at Colchester — Debased Latinity — Remains of the British Population. 

When we contemplate these numerous towns and cities, so many 
buildings and public works of all descriptions, manufactures and 
monuments of art and science, our inquiries naturally return to 
the people from whom they came, and we ask who were the 
Eomans in Britain ? It is a question much more complicated in 
its various bearings than it would appear at the first thought to 
those who have not previously studied the subject. 

When Rome first established colonies, they were composed 
purely of Roman citizens, usually of veterans or soldiers, who, 
having completed their time, were no longer compelled to serve, 
except in defending the town and territory which was given to 
them. The land of this territory was distributed among them. 
Such was the foundation of Camulodunum [Colchester), as we 
learn incidentally from the narrative of Tacitus. As their conquests 
extended, the Roman legions, which still consisted of Italian 
soldiers, were accompanied with numerous bodies of auxiliaries, or 
troops raised from the different countries which had been succes- 
sively subdued. It was a policy henceforth pursued with great 
steadiness by the Roman conquerors to transplant, under the 
name of auxiliaries, colonies from one nation to another, and 
they thus not only made a gradual amalgamation of the different 
peoples who composed the empire, but they established effective 
defences without exhausting the central force.* Gradually, 

* Cicero, in more passages than one, speaks of the Roman colonice as the 
defences of the empire, propugnacula imperii. 



250 THE ROMANS. [chap. viii. 

however, while destroying the nationalities of other peoples, Eome 
lost its own nationality in the mass. Men from those very 
nations upon whom ancient Rome had trampled as barbarians, 
were made commanders in its armies, nobles in its senate, and 
emperors on its throne. The Roman legions were now recruited 
indiscriminately, and we shall have to point out officers of the 
legions in Britain, who were natives of countries far distant from 
Italy. 

/ Even with our present imperfect information, we can trace the 
parcelling out of Britain among colonies of almost every people 
who had been subdued by the Roman arms, and it must have 
presented a strange assemblage of races.* l The Notitia Imperii, 
composed under Theodosius the younger; and therefore at the 
close of the Roman domination in Britain, gives us a rather long 
list of the auxiliary nations who held the towns and stations along 
the south-eastern and eastern coasts and in the north, the parts 
then exposed to invasion by the Saxons and the Picts. Thus we 
learn from that valuable record, that Othona (supposed to be the 
lost town of Ythaucester, on the coast of Essex), was occupied by a 
body of Fortensians, who came from the town of Fortia in Asiatic 
Sarmatia. Dubras (Dover) was held by Tungricanians, supposed 
to be only another form or an error of the scribe for Tungrians. At 
the Portus Lemanis (Lymne) there were Gauls from Tornacum 
(Tournay). The Abulci, a Spanish people, held Anderida 
(Pevensey). At Regulbium {Revolver) was the first cohort of 
Vetasians, or Betasians, from Belgic Gaul. On the coasts of 
Suffolk and Norfolk, we find Stablesians, perhaps a tribe from 
Germany, at Garriannonum [Burgh Castle), and Dalmatians at 
Branodunum (Brancaster). There were Dalmatians, again, at 
Presidium (Brougliton, in Lincolnshire) ; Crispians, from a town 
named Crispiana in Pannonia, at Danum (Doncaster) ; a people 
called Barcarii Tigrienses, perhaps from Africa, at Arbeia 
(Moresby ?) ; and Nervians, from Belgium, at Dictis (Ambleside ?). 
Returning eastward again, we find Solenses, from Cilicia, at 
Maglone (supposed by Horsley to be Gretabridge) ; and Pacen- 
sians from Lusitania or Portugal, at Magae (Piercebridge). 
Along the line of Hadrian's Wall, the inhabitants of the different 

* I here use tbe word colony, not in its Roman legal sense, but to signify any 
town or settlement formed in one country by a body of people from another. 



chap, vhl] DIFFERENT RACES IN ROMAN BRITAIN. 251 

towns were still more varied in their races. Segedunum (Wallsend) 
was occupied by Lingones from Belgium ; Pons iElii (Newcastle) 
by a people called Cornovii ; Condercum (Benwell) by Asturians 
from Spain ; Vindobala (Rutchester) by Frixagi ; Hunnum 
(Halton Chesters) by a tribe whose name has not been preserved ; 
Cilurnum (Chesters) by another body of Spanish Asturians ; Pro- 
colitia (Carrawburgh) by Batavians ; Borcovicus (Housesteads) by 
Tungrians ; Vindolana (Chesterholm) by Gauls ; iEsica (Great 
Chesters) by another colony of Asturians ; Magna (Carvoran) by 
Dalmatians ; Amboglanna (Birdoswald) by Dacians ; Petriana 
(Cambeck-fort) by Tungrians ; Aballaba (Watch-cross ?) by Moors ; 
Conga vata (Stamvicks) by Lingones ; Axelodunum (Burgh-on-the- 
Sands) by Spaniards ; Gabrosentis (Drumburgh) by Thracians. 
There were Morini from Gaul at Glannibanta (a town of uncertain 
site) ; Nervians at Alionis (Whitley Castle) and at Virosidum 
(Ellenborough). 

These are the different races established in Britain mentioned 
in the Notitia, because, by their position and the circumstances 
of the time, they were obliged to be on active duty. We must 
not, however, imagine that they were bodies of troops in temporary 
quarters which could be changed at pleasure, for inscriptions on 
altars and tombstones, found on many of these sites, show us 
that they had remained in the same place from a very early 
period of the Roman occupation of the island, and some monu- 
mental stones are stated to have been set up by the heir or heirs 
of the deceased (hares, haredes\ which seems sufficient to prove 
that they were possessors of the land. No doubt the colonists of 
these towns were accompanied or followed by relations and 
friends, and as evidently they were recruited from their own 
countries, they must have gone on increasing and strengthening 
themselves. They were all, however, obedient to Roman laws 
and institutions, used the Latin tongue, and had indeed become 
entirely Romanised, as we shall see more and more fully in sub- 
sequent chapters. 

Many others of the races, who thus colonised towns in Britain, 
are now unknown, though a few from time to time are recovered 
by the discovery of inscribed stones. In different places in 
Cumberland there appear to have been Gauls, Dacians, and 
Lingonians. A people called the Carvetii are found at Old 
Penrith. Spaniards, Dalmatians, and Betasians were established 



252 THE KOMANS. [chap. Yin. 

at, or in the neighbourhood, of Ellenborough. At Brougham, 
-there were Germans. In Scotland, inscriptions mention the 
Tungrians in several places ; Gauls at Cramond and at Castlehill 
on the Wall of Autoninus ; Spaniards at Ardoch ; Thracians ; 
Hamii from the Elbe, at Barhill fort on Antoninus 's Wall ; 
Nervians, Germans, and Cugerni, a people of Belgic Gaul, 
between the Ubii and the Batavi. The Roman town at Risingham, 
Habitancum, was held by the Vangiones, a people from the 
banks of the Rhine. The Varduli, from the foot of the Pyrenees 
in Spain, were established at Bremenium (Riechester), and they 
are mentioned also in an inscription found at Epiacum (Lan- 
chester). An inscription found at Bowes, in Yorkshire, proves 
that that site, the Roman Lavatrse, was held by Thracians. In 
Lancashire, Coccium (Ribchester) was a settlement of Sarmatians, 
while Mancunium (Manchester) was a colony of Frisians, called, 
in the inscriptions, Frisingi, Frisones, and Frisavi. The latter 
seem to have found some difficulty in expressing the name of 
their country in the language of their conquerors. If we descend 
towards the south, Uriconium (Wroxeter) appears to have been 
occupied by Thracians ; Cirencester by Thracians and Indians. 
The rarity of inscriptions in the midland and southern towns 
renders it at present impossible to identify the races from which 
they severally drew the nucleus of their population. 

We see still more how people from all parts of the world came 
to intermingle in our island, when we compare their names as 
they occur in inscriptions. Thus, in one of the inscriptions 
found at Cirencester, Dannicus, who belonged to the Indian 
Cavalry stationed there, was a citizen of Rauricum, in Switzerland. 
Sextus Valerius Genialis, the subject of another monument at 
Cirencester, w r ho belonged to the Thracian cavalry, was a Frisian. 
Titus Domitius Heron, prefect of the second cohort of Gauls at 
Old Penrith in Cumberland, came from Nicomedia of Bithynia 
in Asia Minor. iEmilius Crispin us, prefect of the ala Augusta 
at Old Carlisle, was a native of Tusdrus, in Africa (natus in 
provincia Africa de Tusdro). Publius iElius, also prefect of the 
ala Augusta at Old Carlisle, was a native of Mursa, in Lower 
Pannonia (de Mursa ex Panuonia inferior e). Marcus Censorius, 
prefect of the cohort of Spaniards at Ellenborough, was of Nimes, 
in Gaul (ex provincia Narbonensi domo Nemausensis). Lucius 
Duccius, an officer buried at York, was of Vienna, in Gaul. 



chap, viil] DIFFERENT RACES IN ROMAN BRITAIN. 253 

Flavius Longus, a tribune of the twentieth legion at Chester, 
was a native of Samosata, in Syria, the birth-place of Lucian. 
An individual mentioned in an inscription at Lincoln, named 
Nominius Sacer,the son of Bruscus, was of the tribe of the Senones, 
in Gaul (civis Senonii). Caius Valerius, standard bearer of the 
second legion at Caerleon, was a native of Lugdunum, in Gaul 
(Lyons). Julius Vitalis, the fabriciensis of the twentieth legion, 
commemorated in the celebrated inscription found near Bath, was 
a Belgian (natione Belga). Caius Murrius, of the second legion, 
also buried at Bath, was a native of Forum Julii, in Gaul 
(Frejus). Caius Cornelius Peregrinus, the tribune of a cohort at 
Maryport, in Cumberland, was a native of Mauritania (ex provincia 
Mauritania Ccesariensis domo Se . . . . the name of the town is 
broken off). Cornelius Victor, a soldier of the Gauls of Vindolana 
at Chesterholm, was a citizen of Pannonia (civis Pannonice). 
Although the Barbarians frequently assumed a Roman name, 
yet in the inscriptions found in Britain we often meet with 
names which betray their provincial origin. Such are Blescius 
Diovicus, probably the name of a Gaul, found in an inscription 
at Eisingham ; Titus Oisedio, at Cambeck-fort ; Menius Dada, 
at Carvoran ; Audagus, at Brougham ; Iminius Honius Ter- 
tullus, a Gaul, at Cramond, in Scotland ; Marcus Decius Vocon- 
ticus, also in Scotland; and Fabius Bera, in the same country. 
Caius Antiochus Lysimachus, commemorated in a Greek inscrip- 
tion in Scotland ; Hermagora, at Riechester ; and a worshipper of 
Astarte named Pulcher, at Corbridge, were no doubt Greeks. 

When we contemplate the facility with which the Romans 
moulded the nations they had conquered to their own government 
and manners, we feel inclined to doubt the existence among the 
ancients of those deeply implanted sentiments of nationality 
which are observed in modern times. The moment a new 
country was subdued, its inhabitants seem to have rivalled one 
another in their eagerness to become Romanised, and to 
have soon relinquished the manners, the worship, and even the 
language which they had received from their forefathers. Yet it 
was hardly possible that here and there some sentiment of 
attachment for the land of nativity and its recollections should 
not outlive the change, some confession of the influence of old 
superstition, some remains of reverence for the gods of their 
ancient land, or some remembrance of friends, or places, or 



254 THE ROMANS. [chap. vm. 

language. We have seen how often the original country of the 
deceased was commemorated on his tombstone. Perhaps, if we 
examine closely the names of Romano- British towns, and could 
compare them extensively with those of the countries from which 
their founders came, we should find, as in British America at the 
present day, that they also were more or less commemorative of 
the land they had left.* Instances have also been met with 
among the Roman remains found in Britain, of inscriptions 
rudely scratched on cups and bowls, and other articles, in 
languages of which we are now ignorant. Some of these are in 
the possession of Mr. Roach Smith, and have been pronounced by an 
oriental scholar, I think somewhat hastily, to be Arabic. Perhaps 
we should look rather for the language in which they are written, 
to Spain or Africa. I believe these inscriptions have been found 
chiefly in London and at Exeter. At Colchester, a very curious 
class of antiquities has been found, the use of which is not very 
apparent. These are thin roundels of reddish earthenware, on 
the surface of which inscriptions — usually names or numerals — 
and figures of animals, &c, have been scratched. It has been 
conjectured that these may have been tickets of admission to the 
theatre or amphitheatre. One of them has a roughly drawn 
Egyptian cartouche, with a name in hieroglyphics, a proof that 
there was at least one Egyptian resident at Camulodunum. 
Others appear to be Hebrew. 

It is also to be noticed, as illustrating the variety of race which 
here passed under the name of Romans, that the inscriptions 
not unfrequently contain errors in spelling and in Latinity, 
which seem to show that they were composed by persons whose 
mother tongue was not Latin. In an inscription at Caerleon an 
adjective in the feminine gender is joined with a masculine name. 
In an inscription found in Cumberland we have domu instead of 
domo. We find still more frequently such errors as numeni for 
niimini, aginte for agente, and the like, which show the Latin 
tongue spoken by a people whose pronunciation was organically 

* It has often struck me that we ought to look for the derivation of the names 
of the Roman towns in Britain rather from the countries from which the settlers 
came, than from the presumed language of the original Celtic population. Thus 
we know that Ahallaha in the North was a colony of Moors, and certainly the 
name sounds Moorish. Some of the names of Roman towns in Britain are 
identical with towns on the continent, from which the settlers may have heen 
Drought. 



chap, vhi.] THE NATIVE BRITOXS. 255 

different from that of the Bomans. Thus we trace, at this early 
period, one of the causes which led to the formation of the neo- 
latin dialects of the middle ages. 

Among this variety of races, we are led naturally to inquire what 
had become of the original Britons? What portion of the population 
of the island did they form ? Unfortunately we are entirely wanting 
in the materials for solving so interesting a question. It appears 
that British troops served as auxiliaries in the Boman army in 
Britain during the wars of Agricola; and we know that they 
afterwards served thus in various parts of the Boman empire, 
though it seems contrary to the Boman policy to have employed 
them thus in their native land. Horsley gives a fragment of a 
votive tablet found at Castlecary in Scotland, on which was traced 
the word beitton ; and another was found at Ebchester in 
Durham, dedicated to the goddess Minerva by Julius Gneneius, 
who is styled actvaeivs cohoetis iiii. be, but the last letter 
appears to have been doubtful. Inscriptions are said also to 
have been found in the north conveying the words civitas do^txi, 

CIVITAS DVMXON, C1VITATE CATUVELLAV^'OEVM, and CIVITAT BEICIC, 

signifying that the British tribes thus indicated were employed 
in the erection of Hadrian's Wall. This would show that at that 
period they were still allowed a certain degree of political existence. 
But this no doubt was soon taken from them, and the few 
glimpses we have of the earlier period of their history would 
seem to show that they were gradually reduced to the lowest 
degree of dependence. In the towns of the legions or of the 
auxiliaries they would not be allowed to enjoy any rights, and it 
is probable that in the latter part of the Boman period the 
British blood in the south was found chiefly in the peasantry. 
The name of Britons was then applied almost exclusively to the 
independent tribes of Caledonia. 



256 THE ROMAN'S, [chap. ix. 



CHAPTER IX. 

Religious Worship of the Romans in Britain — Roman chief Deities : Jupiter^ 
Mars, Apollo, Minerva, Ceres, &c. — The eight Deities — Lesser Deities : 
Silvanus, iEsculapius — Grecian and Eastern Deities ; the Tyrian Hercules, 
Mythras, Serapis — The Nymphs and Genii, Fortune, and Deified Personifi- 
cations — Deities of the Auxiliary Races : the Deae Matres, Viteres or 
Vitris, Belatucadrus, Cocidius, Mogontis, &c. — Did Christianity prevail or 
exist in Roman Britain ? 

No characteristics of races are more permanent than their reli- 
gious belief and superstitions, and we may expect in these, if in 
anything, to perceive some traces of the original peoples who 
formed the Roman state of Britain through the outward covering 
of Roman forms. Our expectations in this respect will not be 
entirely disappointed, for amid the immense numbers of altars 
found in this island dedicated to the gods of Rome, we find some 
dedicated to deities whose names are new to us, and who, there 
can be little doubt, belonged to the distant province to which the 
auxiliary owed his birth. We know how tolerant in this respect 
the Roman mythology ever showed itself, and though, as a matter 
of course, those who served under its banners were bound to 
show reverence to Rome's gods, they were not restricted from 
offering homage to those who had been worshipped by their own 
forefathers. 

We have already stated that almost every town, or station, had 
its temple, or more usually, its temples, dedicated to different 
deities. Of these, as far as discoveries have yet gone, few traces 
now remain. The materials of which they were built were too 
valuable in subsequent ages to remain untouched, and the stones 
were cleared away, and their sculptures and inscriptions defaced 
by mediaeval builders. Immense quantities of altars shared the 
same fate, and the great number of these monuments which still 



chap, ix.] ALTARS AND SACRIFICIAL IMPLEMENTS. 257 

exist, shows beyond a doubt how very numerous they must have 
been. In the wild country along the line of Hadrian's Wall, 
where they have escaped destruction in greater numbers than 
elsewhere, it was a practice among the peasantry, even within the 
memory of man, to chip away the sculptures and inscriptions 
wherever they found them, because they associated them in their 
minds with notions of magic and witchcraft. The altars to the 
different deities — especially to the lesser objects of worship — 
seem to have been placed within the temples of the superior gods 
in the same manner that the saints had their chapels and shrines 
in the Komish churches ; and they were perhaps also placed in 
the open air, by the forum, or on the roadside, or in the 
cemeteries, like the Eomish crosses. 

The Koman altar consisted usually of a rectangular block of 
stone, with an inscription in front. On each side were carved 
ornaments, ususually representing the instruments of sacrifice, the 
prafericulum, or pitcher, which contained the wine for the offering ; 
the patera, a dish with a handle, used for throwing a portion of 
the wine upon the altar ; the securis, or axe, with which the 
animal was slain ; and the cutter, or knife, used in cutting it up ; 
with a figure of the whole or part of the victim, usually the head 
of an ox. Sometimes other figures were introduced, emblematical 
of the deity to whom the altar was dedicated, or relating perhaps 
in some cases to the dedicator. The back of the altar is usually 
rough, which shows that it was intended to be placed against 
a wall. The upper part was the most elaborately ornamented, 
and in the middle of the upper surface a basin-shaped cavity was 
sunk in the stone, called the focus (or hearth), which received 
the portion of the victim that was offered up in sacrifice, and 
burnt in the fire kindled in the focus. The inscription set forth 
first the deity to whom the altar was dedicated, next the name 
and condition of the dedicator, and often concluded with stating 
the cause of dedication. This was usually a vow. 

This description will be best understood by comparison with 
the annexed cut, which represents a Eoman altar dedicated 
to Jupiter, found at Tynemouth, in Northumberland, and now 
preserved in the museum of the Society of Antiquaries of London. 
It was dedicated by the prefect of the fourth cohort of Lingones, 
which, we are informed by the Notitia, was stationed at Sege- 
dunum, usually placed at Wallsend, of which Tynemouth is, 



258 



THE ROMANS. 



[chap. IX. 



probably, the site of an advanced outpost ; or, perhaps, it may 
have been carried from the ruins of Segedunum, as materials for 
the foundations of the celebrated monastery at the mouth of the 
Tyne. On one side, which is concealed in the perspective view, but 
given in the side sketch, are seen the prof ericulum, the securis, or 




Altar to Jupiter, found at Tynemouth. 

axe, and the culter, or knife, with the usual ox's head. On the 
other side is the patera, supported by two serpents, which had no 
doubt a symbolical signification. The inscription commences 
with the ordinary initials of dedication to the chief deity of the 
mythology of Rome, I. o. m., and must be read as follows : — 



TJOVl] 0[PTIM0] M[AXIMO] 

ael[ivs] rvfvs 
pr^f[ectvs] coh[ortis] 
ilii lingo 

jstvm 



To Jupiter the best and greatest, 

JElius Rufus 

the prefect of cohort the 

fourth of the Lingo- 

nes. 



Numerous inscriptions to Jupiter have been found in Britain, 
which show that all the various races brought together in this 
island joined in worshipping the chief deity of Rome. We have 



chap, ix.] WORSHIP OF JUPITER. 259 

just seen that he was reverenced by the Lingones at Wallsend. 
An altar found at Birdoswald (Amboglanna), was dedicated to 
Jupiter by the Dacians; another, found at Canibeck-fort (Petriana), 
was dedicated to the same deity by the Tungrians ; and a third, 
found at Maryport, by the Spaniards. Other altars dedicated to 
Jupiter have been found at Auchindavy, in Scotland; at Old Carlisle 
(Olenacnm); at Chesterholrn (Vindolana), dedicated by Gauls ; at 
Housesteads (Borcovicus), by the Tungrians ; at Ellenborough 
(Virosidum), by Spaniards; at Plumpton Wall (uncertain), by Gauls ; 
at Xetherby [Castra explo rat L orum); at Lanercost and Bew T castle 
(uncertain), all by Dacians ; at Lanchester (Ejnacwn) ; at Chester 
(Deva), by-^the twentieth legion; at Caerleon (Isca), by the 
second legion, and at York by the sixth legion. Many others 
might be added to the list. In some of these altars the deity is 
distinguished by peculiar appellations, or is joined with others. 
Three altars have been found in Britain dedicated to Jupiter 
Dolichenus, One of these was found in the middle of the 
seventeenth century in the neighbourhood of Caerleon, at a place 
named St. Julians, and was read as follows : — 

iovi.o.m. dolichv To Jupiter the best and greatest, 

i. ox.° aemeliasys the Dolichene, ^Emilianus 

calpyrniys Calpurnius 

ryfiliaxys . . .EC Rufilianus (dedicates this) by 

aygystorym the emperors ' 

moxiiv direction. 

There appears to have been a peculiar aptness in the epithet as 
used in this locality, which was on the edge of the great iron 
district. Reinesius has printed an inscription found at Rome 
which describes this title as bearing reference to a place where 
iron was produced : — 

IOYI OPTIMO MAXIMO DOLYCHEXO 
YEI EEREYM XASCITYR C SEMPRO 
NIVS RECTY3 CENT YII FRYMEXTARIYS 
D D 

" The Doliche," Mr. Roach Smith observes,* "which gives the 
name of Dolichenus to Jupiter, was most probably the town of 
that name in Macedonia, a country which, Strabo says, abounded 
in iron ; and to this Doliche, the words in the last inscription, 
ubi ferritin nascitur. where iron is produced, seem more applicable, 

* In the first number of his Collectanea^ "where he has published some other 
inscriptions to Jupiter Dolichenus. 

s 2 



260 THE ROMANS. [chap. ix. 

than to Dolichenes, a city of Commagene, in Asia, whence, 
according to Stephanus, this name was derived." Two other 
altars dedicated to Jupiter Dolichenus are published by Horsley, 
one found in the neighbourhood of Newcastle, in the midst of the 
coal district, where remains of ancient coal-mines have been 
found, the other at Risingham (Habitancum). 

Early in the seventeenth century, an altar was found at Chester 
dedicated to Jupiter under the name or epithet of Tanarus : — 

I. o. m. tanaro To Jupiter, best and greatest, Tanarus, 

T. elvpivs galer Titus Elupius Galerius 

praesens gvntia Praesens, of Guntia (a town in Vindelicia), 

pri. leg. xx vv prefect of the twentieth legion, styled valens victrix, 

commodo et Commodus and 

laterano Lateranus 

cos being consuls, 

v. s. L. M. performed his vow willingly and dutifully. 

The date of this inscription is fixed, by the names of the consuls, 
in the year 154. It is curious for several reasons. Tanarus is 
supposed, and apparently with good reason, to be the Teutonic 
Thunar, the Scandinavian Thor, whose name is preserved in our 
Thursday, and who is always identified with the classic Jupiter. 
It thus shows the influence of Teutonic feelings in England at a 
very early period. 

Jupiter is often combined in these inscriptions with other 
deities or objects of worship. An altar found at Chesterholm, in 
Northumberland (Vindolana), is dedicated by Quintus Petronius, 
praefect of the Gauls established there, Jovi optimo maximo 
ccBterisque diis immortalibus et genio jprcetorii — to Jupiter, best and 
greatest, and to the rest of the immortal gods, and to the genius 
of the pretorium. A centurion of the second legion dedicated an 
altar, found at i^uchindavy, in Scotland, to Jupiter and Victoria 
victrix — Victory the vanquisher. An altar found at York bore 
the following inscription : — 

i. o. w. To Jupiter best and greatest, 

Dis . deabvsqve and to the gods and goddesses 

hospitalibvs . pe who preside over the household, 

natibvsq . obcon and to the penates, for the 

servatam . salvtem preservation of the health 

svam . svorvmq of himself and his family, 

p . ael . marcian Publius JElius Marcianus, 

vs . praef . coh praefect of a cohort, 

aram . sac . F . nc . D. dedicated and consecrated this altar. 



chap, ix.] JUPITER AND MARS. 261 

Even the emperor himself was thus associated with the deity. 
At Housesteads, on the Wall of Hadrian {Borcovicus), an altar 
has been found with the inscription — 

I. o. m. To Jupiter the best and greatest, 

et nvminibvs and the deities 

avg coh i tv of Augustus, the first cohort 

ngrorvm of the Tungrians, 

mil cvi praee a military one, commanded 

st q verivs by Quintus Verius 

svperstis Superstis, 

praefectvs its prsefect. 

" The emperor himself," as Mr. Bruce observes, "is probably 
intended by this phrase, not the gods whom the emperor wor- 
shipped. The use of the noun in the plural number, numina, is 
not opposed to this view. Horsley remarks that niunina is 
frequently, in classical writers, applied to a particular deity ; thus 
we have numina Diance in Horace, and numina Plusbi in Virgil. 
The emperors, we know, were frequently worshipped as gods. 
The Mantuan bard, addressing Augustus, has no doubt of his 
divinity, though he knows not what region to assign to his 
especial care : — 

. . . . urbesne invisere Csesar, 
Terrarumque velis curam ; . . . . 
An deus immensi venias maris, ac tua nautae 
Numina sola colant." 

Other altars have been found in Britain dedicated to Jupiter 
et numinibus Augusti, or Augustorum. 

Perhaps, after Jupiter, the deity most extensively worshipped 
in Roman Britain was Mars, which is easily explained by the 
military character of the mass of the settlers. Mars, like Jupiter, 
is often coupled with other divinities, and distinguished by 
various epithets. At Benwell (Condercum), an altar was found 
dedicated to Mars, the conqueror and avenger — deo Marti victori 
vindici. An altar was dedicated by the Bsetasii at Ellenborough 
to the military Mars, — Marti militari — which we should imagine 
to be an unnecessary epithet. One found at Lanchester (Epiacum), 
was dedicated Marti Augusti, to Mars of Augustus. An altar 
found at Kibchester (Coccium), was dedicated deo Marti et Victoria 
dominorum Augustorum — to the god Mars and Victory of the 
emperors. Another altar found at the same place was dedicated 



262 THE ROMANS. [chap. ix. 

Marti pacifero — to Mars the peace-bearer. Among several altars 
dedicated by a Koman officer named Cocceius Firmus, and 
found at Auchindavy, in Scotland, was one with the following 
inscription : — 

marti To Mars, 

MINERVAE to Minerva, 

campestbi to the deities of the fields, 

bvs hero. . . to Hero, 

epona to Epona, 

victortae to Victory, 

M coccei Marcus Cocceius 

firmvs Firmus, 

leg II avg centurion of the second legion 

called Augusta. 

A singular epithet is given to Mars on an altar found at 
Haddon Hall, in Derbyshire, with the following inscription : — 



DEO 


To the god 


MARTI 


Mars 


BRACIACAE 


Braciaca, 


OSITTIVS 


Osittius 


CAECTLIAN 


Csecilianus, 


PRAEFECT 


prsefect 


COH I AQVITANI 


of the first cohort of the Aquitani, 


V. S 


in performance of a vow. 



Horsley supposes that Braciaca is the name of a place. Other 
epithets, or synonyms, applied to Mars, will be mentioned 
further on. Altars dedicated to this god have also been found at 
Lanchester, Castlesteads, Lancaster, and other places. 

Dedications to Apollo, in his simple classical character, are of 
rarer occurrence. One found on the line of Hadrian's Wall 
bears the following inscription : — 

deo apol To the god Apollo 

ini et o. N and all the deities, 

sinis expl the left wing of exploratores, or guides, 

cvi PR svlp under the command of Sulpicius, 

votvm s in discharge of a vow 

L. l. m. most willingly and dutifully (dedicates 
this). 

An altar found at Eibchester (Coccium), dedicated to this deity, 
is more curious, though somewhat more obscure. It was first 
described by Camden, and the inscription very incorrectly copied, 
and it was afterwards supposed to be lost, till Dr. Whitaker 



chap, ix.] APOLLO ; DIANA ; MINERVA. 263 

discovered it in 1815 among the antiquarian treasures of Salesbury 
Hall. The inscription, as copied by Dr. Whitaker, runs thus — 

deo sancto To the holy god 

APOLLONI APONO Apollo ApOllUS, 

ob salviem dn for the health of our lord (the emperor), 

al eq sarm the wing of Sarmatian horse 

breneten of Brenetum, (?) 

svb dianio under Dianius 

antonino Antoninus, 

o leg vi v centurion of the sixth legion, called 

ic domv the conquering, his native town 

eliber was Eliber. 

The god is said to have received his appellation of Aponus, from 
the Fontes Aponi, warm springs near Padua, at a place still 
called Poni, which were celebrated for their medicinal qualities. 
At Inveresk, in Scotland, an altar has been found dedicated to 
Apollo Grannus ; and at Auchindavy there was one dedicated 
conjointly to Apollo and Diana. An altar and the dedication of 
a temple to Diana, have been found at Caerleon (Isca). 

Altars to the female deities of Rome are not numerous among 
those hitherto found in Britain. I am not aware of any instance 
of a dedication to Venus, but I believe there is one to Juno. 
Minerva occurs on several occasions. Under the title of 
Suliminerva she had a magnificent temple at Bath [Aqua Solis), 
the inscription on which was restored by Lysons. There was a 
temple to Minerva at Ribchester (Coccium), the dedication of 
which was commemorated in an inscription found there in 1811,* 
Minerva is joined with Neptune in the celebrated inscription 
relating to the dedication of a temple at Chichester (Regnum). 
A small altar found at Rochester, in Northumberland (Bremenium), 
was dedicated to Minerva in the following simple inscription : — 



DEAE Ml 


To the goddess 


NERVE IVL 


Minerva, Julius 


CARANTVS 


Carantus 


S. C. 


dedicated this. 



Minerva is joined with Mars in an inscription already mentioned 
as found at Auchindavy, in Scotland. At Kirk Haugh, in 

* DEAE MINERVAE PRO SALVTE IMP ALEXANDRI AVG ET IVLI MAMMEAE MATRIS 
DN ET CASTR SVOR ET VAL CRESCENTIS FVLVIANI LEG EIVS PP PR PR T FLORIDVS 
NATAL1S LEG PRAEP N ET REGINAE TEMPLVM A SOLO EX RESPONSV RESTITVIT KT 
DEDICAVIT. 



264 



THE KOMANS. 



[chap. IX. 



Northumberland, an altar was discovered, dedicated dece- Minerva 
et Herculi victori — to the goddess Minerva, and to Hercules the 
conqueror. But perhaps the most curious inscription found in 
this country, is a slab discovered in 1816 at Carvoran [Magna), 
containing an inscription relating to the goddess Ceres, consisting 
of a sort of mystical declaration of the creed of a Roman tribune 
composed in iambic verse. The annexed cut, taken from 




;!|ljnVG MAXCVSCAFCifMDOl 




Inscription to Ceres, found ac Carvoran (Magna). 

Mr. Bruce's work on the Roman wall, represents this slab and its 
inscription, which, arranged properly in lines, is as follows : — 

Imminet leoni virgo cselesti situ 
Spicifera, justi inventrix, urbium conditrix, 
Ex quis muneribus nosse contigit deos. 
Ergo eadem mater divum, pax, virtus, Ceres ; 
Dea Syria ; lance vitam et jura pensitaus. 
In cselo visum Syria sidus edidit 
Lybise colendum, inde cuncti didicimus ; 
Ita intellexit, numine inductus tuo, 
Marcus Csecilius Donatinus, militans 
Tribunus in prsefecto dono principis. 



chap, ix.] CERES; MERCURY; THE PLANETS. 265 

It has been thus translated by Mr. Bruce : — 

The Virgin in her celestial seat overhangs the Lion, 

Producer of corn, inventress of right, foundress of cities, 

By which functions it has been our good fortune to know the deities. 

Therefore the same Virgin is the mother of the gods, is peace, is virtue, 

is Ceres; 
Is the Syrian goddess, poising life and laws in a balance. 
The constellation beheld in the sky hath Syria sent forth 
To Lybia to be worshipped, thence have all of us learnt it ; 
Thus hath understood, overspread by thy protecting influence, 
Marcus Csecilius Donatinus, a warfaring 
Tribune in the office of prefect, by the bounty of the emperor. 

" Caecilius," as Mr. Bruce observes, " probably prepared this 
exposition of his faith on being admitted into the mysteries of 
Ceres." An altar dedicated to the goddess under one of the 
titles here mentioned — deae svkiae — was found at Little 
Chesters, in Northumberland ; it was raised by an officer of one 
of the auxiliary cohorts, named Aulus Licinius Clemens, in the 
propraBtorship of Calpurnius Agricola, that is, between the years 
162 and 180. 

Mercury is often figured among Roman remains found in this 
island, and an altar was found at Birrens in Scotland, dedi- 
cated to this deity by Julius Cerealis Censorinus, image-maker 
of the college of the ligniferi, which appear to have been a 
religious order attached to the worship of the gods, and the 
occupation of Cerealis was to make their statues. — 

deo mercy To the god Mercury, 

Rio iyl crs Julius Cerealis 

cens sigill Censorinus, image-maker 

col lign cvlt of the college of ligniferi, his worshippers, 

eivs dsd gave it at his own cost, 

Y. s. L. m. in performance of a vow willingly and dutifully. 

Mercury appears to have been the favourite deity of this college, 
for they also dedicated a statue of Mercury to the god and to the 
emperor — niunini Augustideo Mercurio. 

We have already seen how the principal deities were often 
combined together, or with others. One of these combinations, 
which was very popular, consisted of the deities who presided 
over the days of the week — the signa or planets — combined with 
another to make up the number eight. They were Sol, or 
Apollo, who presided over Sunday (dies Solis) ; the moon, or 
Diana, for Monday; Mars, for Tuesday; Mercury, for Wednesday; 



266 THE ROMANS. [chap. ix. 

Jupiter, for Thursday; Venus, for f Friday ; and Saturn, for 
Saturday. They are thus enumerated in an " eclogue," or 
epigram of Ausonius : — 

Primum supremumque diem radiatus habet sol ; 
Proxima fraternae succedit Luna coronse ; 
Tertius assequitur Titania lumina Mavors ; 
Mercurius quarti sibi vindicat astra diei ; 
Inlustrant quint am Jo vis aurea sidera zonam ; 
Sexta salutigerum sequitur Venus alma parentem ; 
Cuncta supergrediens Saturni septima lux est ; 
Oetavum instaurat revolubilis orbita Solem. 

In most of the Eoman monuments the week commences with 
Saturn (Saturday), and not, as in Ausonius, with Sol (Sunday). 
A fragment of an octagonal monument in stone, sculptured with 
the eight deities, which long lay neglected in a blacksmith's 
shop at Chesterford, in Essex, and is now in the British Museum, 
contains four of these figures, namely, Mars, Mercury, Jupiter, 
and Venus. It is a curious circumstance that at the same 
station, Chesterford, portions of two of the indented earthenware 
vessels made in the Durobrivian potteries have been found, which 
had the eight deities figured in eight indentations. In the volume 
of the " Magna Britannia " of Lysons for Cumberland, are 
engravings of sculptures, in rather superior workmanship, of 
deities found at Plumpton Wall, which appear also to have 
belonged to the eight deities. They are represented in the 
tesselated pavement of what has been called the Medusa room, in 
the Roman villa at Bramdean, in Hampshire. Mr. Roach Smith 
possesses a very curious bronze forceps, found in the bed of the 
Thames, the purpose of which is by no means evident ; but 
representations of these planetary deities in busts are arranged 
on the two parallel shanks. They commence at the bottom of 
the left shank with Saturn, and conclude at the bottom of the 
opposite side with the bust of a female divinity, supposed to be 
Ceres, which completes the number eight. It is from this 
number that the French still call the week huit jours, and the 
Germans acht tage. We have ourselves preserved the reckoning 
of our Saxon forefathers, and instead of calling the week huit jours, 
and the two weeks quinze jours, with the French, we call them 
sennight (seven nights), and fortnight (fourteen nights). Mr. 
Roach Smith, who has given some remarks on these deities in the 



chap, ix.] THE PLANETS; SILVANUS. 267 

second volume of his " Collectanea," informs us that there is, " in 
the Museum at Mayence, a votive altar, found at Castel, on the 
opposite side of the Rhine, which belongs to the same class of 
mythic representations as those on the Bramdean pavement and 
the forceps. This monument is about three feet and a half high, 
and is divided into two parts, the lower of which is quadrilateral ; 
the upper, of smaller dimensions, octagonal. On the former are 
sculptured the full-length figures of Mercury, Hercules, Minerva, 
and Juno ; the latter contains busts of Saturn, Sol, Luna, Mars, 
Mercury, Jupiter, and Venus ; the eighth compartment is 
inscribed in h d d, in honor em domits divinoe. Over the left 
shoulder of Saturn is a sickle in form of our modern bill-hook ; 
Sol wears a radiated crown ; Luna, a crescent ; Mars is helmeted, 
and carries a shield ; the head of Mercury is winged ; the bust of 
Jupiter has been injured, and his emblems are not clearly 
to be recognised ; Venus carries a mirror. Other museums in 
Germany, I am informed, contain sculptures of the planets 
similarly arranged. Montfaucon has published an engraving of 
the seven busts, in a boat, or more probably a half-moon, in 
bronze." In the Bramdean pavement, where they are similarly 
represented in busts, Saturn, as the first, has been destroyed 
with a portion of the pavement; Sol is represented with the 
radiated crown, and with his usual attribute, a whip ; Luna has 
the crescent ; Mars is distinguished by his helmet and spear ; 
Mercury has a winged cap, and the eaduceus in his hand ; 
Jupiter, a sceptre in the form of a trident ; and Venus, a mirror. 
The eighth head has been destroyed by the same fracture which 
has erased the figure of Saturn. This eighth figure seems to 
have been chosen almost at pleasure. 

The minor deities and heroes of Roman mythology also have 
their place among the Roman altars found in Britain. Silvanus, 
the god of forests and of hunting, was an object of general 
reverence. We have already (p. 207), given an inscription dedi- 
cating an altar to Silvanus, in consequence of the slaughter of an 
enormous boar. An altar found at Birdoswald [Amhoglanna) 
bears the following inscription : — 

deo sancto To the holy God 

stlvano ve Silvanus, 

natores The hunters of 

banne ss Banna have consecrated this. 



268 THE ROMANS. [chap. ix. 

At Moresby, in Cumberland, an altar was found dedicated to the 
God Silvanus (deo silvano), by the second cohort of Lingones. 
Another, dedicated to the same deity, was found at Netherby, and 
another at Newcastle-upon-Tyne. An altar found in the north 
of England was dedicated Silvano Pantheo. In Scotland, a 
mutilated altar dedicated to Silvanus was found at Castlecary ; 
and one found at Eidon bore the following inscription : — 

deo silva To the god Silvanus, 

NO pro sa for the health (or welfare) 

lvte sva et of himself and 

svorum car his family, 

Rivs domiti Carrius Domitianus, 

anvs o leg xx centurion of the twentieth legion 

vv vs ll m the valiant and victorious, performs his 
vow most willingly and dutifully. 

Altars were dedicated to other gods for health and welfare. 
An altar to iEsculapius found at Lanchester, in Durham, bears a 
Greek inscription, stating that it was dedicated to the god by a 
tribune named Titus Flavius Titianus, for the recovery of his 
health (virep o-wTrjplas). Altars dedicated to Hercules are not 
very uncommon. They have been found on the line of Hadrian's 
Wall and in Scotland. An altar was dedicated by the Vangiones 
at Habitancum (Bisingham), to Hercules as the unconquered 
god — deo invicto Herculi. Another altar found in the north was 
dedicated to Hercules and the deity of Augustus- — Herculi et 
numini Aug. An altar found at Polmont, in Scotland, was dedi- 
cated by a soldier in a troop of Tungrian cavalry to Hercules 
Magusanus, an epithet which the deity derived from Magusa, a 
town of Ethiopia, from whence, perhaps, the dedicator came. At 
Corbridge an altar was dedicated by a Grecian priestess to the 
Tyrian Hercules, with the brief inscription : — 



HPAKAEI 


To Hercules 


TlPPin 


the Tyrian, 


AIOAHPA 


Diodora 


APXIEPEIA 


the high-priestess. 



Several of the Syrian and Oriental deities shared with those of 
Rome the devotion of the inhabitants of Britain. At Corbridge 
(Corstopitum), where there appears to have been a Grseco-Syriac 
population, an altar has been found dedicated to the Phoenician 



chap, ix.] ^ESCULAPIUS; HERCULES; ASTARTE; MITHRAS. 269 

Astarte, the Ashtaroth of Scripture, with an inscription which 
forms a line in Greek hexameter verse. 

ACTAPTHC Of Astarte 

BHMON M the altar me 

ECOPAC you see, 

nOYAXEP M Pulcher me 

ANE0KKEN dedicated. 

i 
The curious figured plate of silver found at Corbridge in 1734, 

and known as the Corbridge lanx, had no doubt some connection 
with the mysterious worship which these inscriptions show to 
have existed there under the Romans. It contained figures of 
Diana, Minerva, Juno, Yesta, and Apollo, with other objects, the 
meaning of which is obscure. 

Another eastern superstition, the Mithraism of Persia, had 
planted itself deeply in this island The worship of Mithras 
was established at Rome under Trajan, and it afterwards spread 
through the western provinces of the empire. An altar found at 
Housesteads in Northumberland (Borcovicus), was erected in the 
year 252, when Gallus and Volusianus were consuls. It bears 
the following inscription, in which the title of Jupiter (i. o. m) is 
usurped : — 

D. o. m. To the god best and greatest, 

invicto mit the invincible Mith- 

eae saecvlari ras, lord of ages, 

pvbl procvli Publius Proculi- 

Nvs o pro se nus, centurion, for himself 

ET procvlo fil and his son Proculus, 

svo v s L M performs his vow willingly and dutifully, 

dd nn gallo ET our lords Gallus and 

volvsino cos Volusianus being consuls. 

This altar was found in a Mithraic cave. We know that a cave, 
or, at least, a dark and generally subterranean room, representing 
a cave, was properly the scene of the worship of this deity, which 
continued long established in the western empire. We are told 
that as late as the year 378, Gracchus, prefect of Rome, 
destroyed the cave of Mithras in that imperial capital. Porphyry 
tells us that Mithras was worshipped in a cave, because this was 
the image and symbol of the world, and that it was dark, because 
the essence of the virtues is obscure. The mysticism of the 
Mithraic worship entered deeply into the doctrines of the Neo- 
Platonists, to whose school Porphyry belonged. " The cave at 



270 THE ROMANS. [chap. ix. 

Housesteads," says Mr. Bruce, " was situated in the valley to 
the south of the station. It was discovered in 1822 by the 
tenant of the farm in which it stood, who fixed upon the spot as 
one likely to yield him the material which he required for 
building a stone fence hard by. The building was square ; its 
sides faced the cardinal points ; it had been originally, as was 
usually the case in a Mithraic temple, permeated by a small 
stream. Hodgson, who saw it as soon as it was laid bare, says, 
' the cave itself seems to have been a low contemptible hovel, 
dug out of a hill side, lined with dry walls, and covered 
with earth or straw.' Though the building has been entirely 
removed, a small hollow is left which marks the spot where 
it stood. All the sculptured stones have happily been placed 
in the custody of the Society of Antiquaries of Newcastle-upon- 
Tyne." 

The largest of these sculptures appeared to have been broken 
to pieces, and part of it carried away ; it has been one of those 
remarkable bas-reliefs of which so many examples have been 
found on the sites of the Mithraic worship in the Roman pro- 
vinces. The god was usually represented as a youth wearing 
the Phrygian bonnet and costume, and kneeling on a prostrate 
bull, which he is sacrificing. Among the numerous figures and 
emblems attendant on this group, the most conspicuous are a 
personage carrying an uplifted torch, representing the sun in the 
vernal equinox, and another with an extinguished and reversed 
torch, representing the sun on its approach to the winter solstice. 
These two figures are otherwise explained as the guides and 
guardians of souls into and out of life : the one with the inverted 
torch denoting the descent of the souls to earth ; the other, with 
the torch erect, their return to heaven. One of these figures, 
nearly entire, was found among the fragments in the cave at 
Housesteads. The remaining portions of this monument had, no 
doubt, been carried away and broken up at a remote period — 
perhaps for the sake of the material — by the ignorant peasantry 
of the neigbourhood. Another sculptured stone, found in the same 
place, represented a figure of Mithras, holding a sword in his 
right hand, and a rather indefined spiral object in his left, in the 
centre of an egg-shaped tablet, on which were sculptured the 
signs of the zodiac. Other altars, besides the one of which the 
inscription is given above, were found in this cave. One bore 



chap, ix.] WORSHIP OF MITHRAS. 271 

an equally interesting inscription, which was easily read as 
follows : — 



DEO 


To the god 


SOLI IXVI 


the sun, the in- 


CTO MITRJE 


vincible Mithras, 


SAECYLARI 


the lord of ages, 


LITORIYS 


Litorius 


PACATIANVS 


Pacatianus, 


B F. COS. PRO 


a consular beneficiary, for 


SA ET SVIS. V. S 


himself and family, fulfils 


L. M. 


willingly and dutifully. 



his vow 

An inscription found at Eiechester in Northumberland comme- 
morates the dedication of a temple, deo invicto soli socio sacrum, by 
Lucius Ceecilius Optatus, a tribune of the first cohort of the 
Varduli. Another smaller altar found in this cave, from that 
circumstance, identifies Mithras with the sun; it bears the 
simple inscription, — 

soli To the Sun, 

herion Hieronynius, 

v. l. M. performs his vow willingly and dutifully. 

It is to be regretted that even bare walls, which marked the site 
in this island of those dark and fearful mysteries, which were 
said to have been stained with human blood, and which are repre- 
sented as having been a principal cause of the murder of the impe- 
rial tyrant, Heliogabalus, should have been wantonly destroyed. 
It was a national monument of no little value. The important 
town of Borcovicus, where these remains were found, was held by a 
cohort of Tungrians. At Chesters (Cilurnum), another town on the 
line of the wall, held by Asturians from Spain, a sculptured slab 
of stone was found, which is supposed also to refer to the worship 
of Mithras/ 1 ' Hodgson has hazarded the following description and 
explanation of it: — " The sculpture is in two compartments : that 
on the left seems to contain a lion, statant, raising the head of a 
naked and dead man ; that on the right, a figure of Mithras seated 
on a bench, and having a flag in one hand, a wand [or sceptre] in 
the other, and on its head the Persian tiara (?). I would hazard 
a conjecture that the whole relates to the Mithraic rites, called 
Leontica ; for the lion, in the zodiac of the ancient heathens, 

* Engravings of these altars and sculptures will be found in Brace's u Roman 
Wall.'" On the monuments of the worship of Mithras, see Yon Hammer's 
" Mithiiaca," and especially the forthcoming work of M. Lajard on this subject. 



272 THE ROMANS. [chap. ix. 

stood for Mithras, or the sun, which threw its greatest heat upon 
the earth during its course through the constellation Leo." 

Monuments of the Mithraic worship are said to have heen 
found in Cambeck-fort in Cumberland; and a portion of a sculptured 
entablature of Mithras and the bull was found early in the last 
century at Chester. But the most perfect of these monuments 
yet seen in Britain was one found at York, and still preserved in 
the vestibule of the museum of that city. An engraving of it is 
given in Mr. Wellbeloved's "Eburacum." It represents Mithras 
stabbing the bull, with all the usual attendant figures. It is 
supposed that the spot where this very interesting monument was 
discovered was the site also of a Mithraic cave, where the rites of 
the Persian deity were performed by the ancient citizens of 
Eburacum. 

At York also has been found a monument commemorative 
of one of the deities of ancient Egypt. It is a large slab, 
with an inscription dedicating a temple to Serapis, in the 
following words : — 

deo . sancto To the holy God 

serapi Serapis, 

templvm . aso this temple from the 

lo . fecit ground made 

cl . hierony Claudius Hierony- 

mianvs . leg mianus, legate 

leg . vi . vic of the sixth legion, called the victorious. 

It is not necessary here to speak of the prominent place held by 
the god Serapis among the objects of worship in imperial Borne, 
and we are not surprised to find that a temple was dedicated to 
him in almost the first city in Boman Britain. If we had a few 
more of the altars and other religious monuments which have been 
destroyed, or are yet buried under the sod, we should,, no doubt, 
trace his worship in other parts of Britain. An altar dedicated 
iovi seeapi (to Jupiter Serapis) has been found at Appleby, in 
Cumberland. 

There was another class of Boman deities which were, no 
doubt, better understood by the Teutonic, and probably by the 
Gallic races, because they bore a closer affinity to that popular 
class of mythic beings which are represented by our elves and 
fairies — the nymphs and genii. These are commemorated in 
numerous altars found in this island. The nymphs presided over 



chap, dl] WORSHIP OF THE NYMPHS. 273 

groves and meadows, and especially over fountains. Close by a 
spring of clear water overlooking the ancient station of Habitancum 
(Risingham), was found an altar dedicated to the nymphs of the 
spot in the following hexameter couplet: — 

Somnio prsemonitus miles hanc ponere jussit 
Aram quae Fabio nupta est nymphis venerandis. 

The writer was evidently more anxious to preserve the measure 
of his verse than to make himself intelligible, and the sense 
intended to be conveyed is far from clear. Mr. Bruce has 
offered two explanations. " Taking nupta est to signify dedicated, 
a peculiar use of the word, suggested perhaps by its etymological 
relationship with the one which it governs, nymphis, the inscription 
will read — ' A soldier, warned in a dream, directed the erection 
of this altar, which is dedicated by Fabius to the nymphs to whom 
worship is due.' The other method of rendering it is the fol- 
lowing : — ' A soldier, warned in a dream, directed her (earn 
supplied) who is married to Fabius, to erect this altar to the 
nymphs to whom worship is due.' According to either inter- 
pretation the altar was erected to the sylphs of the fountain 
in consequence of a dream." An altar found near Chester (Deva), 
to the east of the town, on a spot abounding in springs, bore the 
inscription : — 



NYMPHIS 


To the nymphs 


ET 


and 


FONTIBVS 


fountains, 


LEG XX 


the twentieth legion, 


V V 


the valiant and victorious. 



It reminds us of the poet's description of iEneas, who, when he 
had reached an unknown land, 

Nymphasque et adhuc ignota precatur 
Flumina. 

The nymphs and kindred deities were, in fact, regarded by the 
Eomans with extreme reverence, not less than that shown by the 
Germans to their popular deities, which has not been entirely 
eradicated from the minds of the peasantry even at the present 
day. Another altar dedicated to the nymphs was found at Nether 
Croy, in Scotland ; and at Rutchester (Vindobala), one was dedi- 
cated to a kindred class of deities, the gods of the mountains. 
The gods of the fields have also their altars, and in one, found at 



274 THE KOMAXS. [chap. ix. 

Castle Hill, on the wall of Antoninus, they are identified with 
Britain, — 

campes To the field deities 

TRIB7S et and the deities 

BRiTANNi of Britain, 

q pisentiys Quintus Pisentius 

iystvs peep Justus, prefect 

coh iiii gal of the fourth cohort of Gauls, 

v s ll M performs his vow most willingly 
and dutifully. 

Even the roads had their deities ; an altar preserved in a muti- 
lated state at Tretire, in Herefordshire, on the borders of the 
great Roman iron district, was dedicated, apparently, to the god 
who presided over cross roads, deo trivii ; and a more perfect 
altar, found at Gretabridge, in Yorkshire, had the following 
ascription : — 

deo qui "VTAS To the god who ways 

et semitas com and paths has de- 

mentvs est t ir vised, Titus Ir- 

das s c f v ll M das performed a holy vow most 

willingly and dutifully. 

q varivs vita Quintus Varius Vita- 

lis et E cos aram lis, beneficiary of the consul, 

sacram resti the holy 

tvit altar restored, 

aproniano ET bra Apronianus and Bra- 

dva cos dua being consuls. 

The altar erected by Titus Irdas having become dilapidated, 
Quintus Varius Vitalis appears to have caused another to be 
made in its place ; he may have been a relative of the first 
dedicator. Apronianus and Bradua were consuls in the year 191. 
An altar has been found in the neighbourhood of Hadrian's Wall 
dedicated to the gods who preside over cultivation, dis cultoribus. 

The genii were a somewhat different description of divinities, 
having each a peculiar object entrusted to its care. We have seen 
how, even when a man opened a shop or established a trade, he 
began by propitiating the genius of the place on which he settled. 
When iEneas arrived at the mouth of the Tiber, he invocated 
genium loci. An altar found at Chester was dedicated to the 
genius of the place for the health of the two emperors (probably 
Diocletian and Maximian) ; and the same genius occurs in more 
than one other instance on Roman altars found in Britain. One 



CHAP. IX.1 



THE GEXII. 



275 



of these, found in the camp at Maryport, in Cumberland, and 




mm-Jtm 







Roman Altar found at Maryport. 

remarkable for its elaborate ornamentation, is represented in the 

annexed cut. The inscription must be read as follows : — 

genio loci To the genius of the place, 

eortvnae REDTCi to returning fortune, 

romae aeterxae to eternal Rome, 

et fato boxo and to propitious fate, 

G corxeliys Gaius Cornelius 

peregrinys Peregrinus, 

trib cohor tribune of a cohort, 

EX proyixcia from the province of 

mayr caesa Mauritania Csesariensis, 

domo se native of Se . . . . 

The last line of the inscription, probably containing the usual 



276 THE ROMANS. [chap, ix 

formula, ysllm (votum solvens libentissime merito), has been en- 
tirely erased, and we have only two letters left of the name of the 
town from which Peregrinus came ; perhaps it was on the river 
Serbes. # " Peregrinus," observes Mr. Bruce, "addresses first 
the deity of the place over which his arms had triumphed ; lest 
the local god should not smile benignantly, he resorts to Fortune, 
who had conducted him safely to the land of his adoption. If 
this deity should fail him, he thinks to find a refuge in the 
genius of the eternal city ; but, driven from this resource, there 
is nothing for it but to trust to fate or chance." 

Besides the genii which presided over each particular locality, 
there was a genius of each province of the empire, and a genius 
of imperial Rome itself. At Auchindavy, in Scotland, were found 
several altars, dedicated to different deities by a centurion of the 
second legion, named Marcus Cocceius Firmus. On one of these 
was the inscription : — 



GENIO 


To the genius 


TERRAE 


of the land 


BRITA 


of 


NNICAE 


Britain, 


M COCCEI 


Marcus Cocceius 


FIRMVS 


Firmus, 


LEG II AVG 


Centurion of the second legion, 




the Augustan. 



The pedestal of a statue, which probably represented a figure of 
Britannia, was dug up at York in the middle of the last century, 
with the inscription : 

bkitanniae To sacred 

sanctae, Britain, 

p . nicomedes Publius Nieomedes, 

avgg .n.n of our two emperors 

LiBERTVS the freedman. 

The two emperors were no doubt Severus and Caracalla. 

At Whitby Castle, in Northumberland, an altar was dedicated 
by the Nervii to the genius of Kome, genio Romae. At Maryport, 
in Cumberland, was found another inscription, romae aeternae 
et fortunae redvci. One at Riechester was dedicated, dea 

* The last remaining letters of the inscription have usually been explained 
domos e [versos'], and supposed to refer to some buildings which the tribune 
Peregrinus had restored, but the interpretation given above is the only one author- 
ised by a comparison of other similar inscriptions. 



CHAP. IX.] 



THE GENII. 



277 



Romce, to the goddess Roma. A tablet was found at Stanwicks, 
in the same county, with an inscription which has been inter- 
preted as follows : — 



LEG. VI 
VIC. P.F. 
G. P. R.F. 



The sixth legion, 
the victorious, pious and faithful, 
to the genius of the Roman people 
made (or erected) this. 



There were genii who presided even over palaces and public offices. 
The fine altar represented in our cut, was found at Chesterholm 




Roman Altar found at Chesterholm (Vindolana). 



(Vijidolana) ; it is ornamented with figures of the usual instru- 
ments of sacrifice, and with another object, which is not so easily 
explained, and it may be observed that the focus, or hollow at the 



278 THE EOMANS. [chap. ix. 

top, was reddened by the action of the sacrificial fire. The 
inscription is : — 

genio To the genius 

praetori of the prsetorium 

SACRVM pi sacred, Pi- 

tvanivs se tuanius Se- 

cvndvs prae__ cundus prae- 

eectvs cho mi feet of the fourth cohort 

GALLOR Of Gauls. 

An altar was found at Lanchester (Epiacum), dedicated to the 
same genius by a tribune of the Lingones : — 

genio praetori To the genius of the preetorium, 

cl epaphroditvs Claudius Epaphroditus 

clavdianvs Claudianus, 

tribvnvs cho tribune of the second cohort 

. . I ling v L P M of Lingones, placed his vow 

willingly and dutifully. 

An altar was found at Caerleon (Isca Silurum), dedicated to the 
genius of the second legion ; and one found in North Britain, was 
dedicated to the genius of the first wing of Spaniards, genio alee i. 
Hispanorum. Thus each prsetorium, or quarters, and each 
troop, had its presiding genius. x\n altar recently discovered at 
Chester has the still more curious inscription : — 



GENIO 


To the genius 


AVERNI 


of Avernus, 


IVL QVIN 


Julius Quin- 


TILIANVS 


tilianus. 



which shows that even the presiding genius of the infernal 
regions had his worshippers in Roman Britain. 

The numen, or divinity of the emperors, was also an object of 
worship, and occurs rather frequently on altars. We have 
already referred to examples in which the imperial numina were 
combined with other deities. At Chester, an altar was found 
dedicated numini Augusti, to the deity of Augustus. The dedi- 
cation, numinibus Auyusti, is common on altars found in different 
places in Northumberland. One found at Risingham was dedi- 
cated by the fourth cohort of Gauls, numinibus Augustorum, which 
is supposed by Horsley to refer to Severus and Caracalla, and by 
others to Caracalla and Geta. An altar, found also at Rising- 
ham, which will be given further on, is dedicated, numini domini 
nostri Augusti, to the divinity of our lord the Augustus. Another, 
found in Cumberland, has, numini imperatoris Alexandri Augusti, 



chap, ix.] NUMEjS 1 AUGUSTI ; FORTUNA. 279 

to the divinity of the emperor Alexander the Augustus, referring 
to Alexander Severus, who held the empire from 222 to 235. In 
an inscription found at Hexham, in 1726, the emperor, supposed 
to be Commodus, is spoken of as, prmsentissimum numen del. 

Numerous altars have been found dedicated to Fortune, who 
seems to have been a popular deity among the towns of Eoman 
Britain. We have one on the line of the wall of Antoninus, in 
Scotland, dedicated conjointly by detachments of the second and 
sixth legions. An altar, dedicated to the same goddess by a 
centurion of the sixth legion, occurs at Chesterholm (Vindolana), 
in Northumberland. A lady whose father belonged to the second 
legion, dedicated an altar to Fortune, at the head-quarters of the 
sixth legion at Eburacum (York). This monument, which may still 
be seen in the York museum, has the inscription : — 



DEAE 


To the goddess 


FORTVNAE 


Fortune, 


SOSIA 


Sosia 


IVNCTNA 


Juncina, 


F ANTONI 


daughter of Antonius 


ISAVRICI 


Isauricus, 


LEG AVG 


of the Augustan legion. 



An altar at Netherby was dedicated by the Spaniards, dece sancta 
Fortune, to the sacred goddess Fortune. On an altar at Whelp 
Castle, in Westmoreland, she is reverenced as Fortuna servatrix. 
One at Manchester was dedicated, FortuncB conservatrici ; and on 
several altars the goddess is worshipped as, Fortuna redux. An 
altar at Chester was dedicated conjointly to Fortuna redux, 
iEsculapius, and Salus. One found at Chesterholm {Vindolana), 
was dedicated, fortuncB popidi Romani, to the fortune of the Roman 
people. But the most interesting of all the inscriptions to this 
goddess is one found at Bowes, in Yorkshire (Lavatr<%), which 
was raised by the celebrated pro-prsetor, or governor of Britain, 
Virius Lupus : — 

deae fortvnae To the goddess Fortune, 

virivs lvpvs Virius Lupus, 

leg avg PR PR legate of Augustus, proprastor, 

balinevm vi the bath, by force 

ignis exvst of fire burnt, 

vm coh i thr of the first cohort of the 

acvm rest Thracians, restored, 

itvit cvran under the care 

te val fron of Valerius Fronto, 

TONE PRAEF prefect 

eq alae vetto of the wing of horse of Vettones. 



280 THE ROMANS. [chap. ix. 

Victory was no less favourite a deity with the Komans in 
Britain than Fortune. A large sculptured figure of this goddess 
has been found at Housesteads in Northumberland (Borcovicus). 
An altar at Rough Castle in Scotland was dedicated to Victory 
by the Nervii. Another, at Ribchester in Lancashire (Coccium), 
was dedicated to Mars and Victory. A sculptured figure of 
Victory at Cambeck-fort in Cumberland bore the inscription 
yictobiae avg-, to victory of Augustus ; and the same words 
occur in the dedicatory inscription of an altar found at Hexham. 
At Ben well (Condercum), an inscribed slab, probably belonging 
to a temple, was found with the following dedicatory inscription, 
in a label supported on each side by a winged figure : — 

victoriae To Victory 

. . . gg nn fe of our two Augusti (this) made 

N s senecio the nephew of Socius Senecio 

N cos feltx the consul, Felix, 

alae I asto of the first wing of the Asturians 

. . . m prae prsefect. 

At Castlesteads, in Cumberland, was found an altar dedicated 
discipvltnae avg, to the discipline of the Augustus. This is an 
inscription which is found on several of the Roman imperial 
coins. Virtues or moral principles were deified in the same 
manner. We have seen before (p. 192) the god Bonus Eventus 
commemorated in the tesselated pavement of a Roman villa ; at 
Binchester in Durham a mutilated altar was found with an 
imperfect inscription, to Mars and Bonus Eventus, by a tribune 
of the first cohort of Cartovians (?) : — 



trib cohor I tribune of the first cohort 

cartov .... of Cartov .... 

marti victori to Mars the victor, 

genio loci to the genius of the place, 

et bono and to good 

eventvi event. 

An altar at Caerleon was dedicated to Fortune and Bonus 
Eventus. An inscription was found at Elsdon in Northumber- 
land, near the Watling-street, which Horsley reads as follows : — 

bono generis To the good of the 

hvman impe human race, 

rante calpvr by order of Calpur- 

nio agricola nius Agricola, 

avg pr pr posvit the propraetor of Augustus, (^'s) placed 

AC dedicavit and dedicated 

c a acilivs. Caius Aulus Acilius. 



chap, ix.] WORSHIP OF THE DE^E MATRES. 281 

Calpurnius Agricola was propraetor of Britain under Antoninus ; 
and the inscription was probably the dedication of the temple, 
but I am not aware of any other instance in which the good of 
the human race was deified. Not less singular is an inscribed 
altar found at Risingham (Habitancum) to a goddess who is sup- 
posed to be the personification of the tertian ague : — 

deae ter To the goddess 

tianae sa Tertian, 

crvm ael sacred, ^Elius 

timothea p Timothea placed it, 

v s ll M performing a vow most 

willingly and dutifully. 

At Carvoran, a small altar was found, dedicated deae eponae 

— to the goddess Epona, who presided over mules and stables ; 

the favourite deity of the gay jockey in Juvenal (Sat. viii., 155), — 

Interea dum lanatas torvumque juvencum 
More ISTumse csedit Jo vis ante altaria, jurat 
Solam Eponam et facies olida ad prsesepia pictas. 

Some of the dedicators, not content with invoking one deity, 
endeavoured to include them all under one invocation. Thus a 
praefect of the Dalmatian cohort at Ellenborough, dedicated an 
altar collectively to the gods and goddesses, diis deabusque. 
Another altar found at Chesters (Cilurnum), was dedicated to 
Apollo " and all the deities," deo Apollini et omnibus numinibus. 
There has been found also in the neighbourhood of Hadrian's 
wall an altar inscribed, deabus omnibus, to all the goddesses. 

We now come to a class of divinities which have a peculiar 
interest in connection with the early history of our island, the 
deities of the auxiliary races who formed so important an element 
of its population. Among these, we must place, first, a class of 
deities commonly known by the title of the dem matres. Altars 
and inscriptions to these deities are very numerous in Belgic 
Gaul and Germany, and more especially along the banks of the 
Ehine, where they are often called matron® instead of matres, and 
they seem to have belonged to the Teutonic race. Not more 
than one altar to these deities has, I believe, been found in Italy, 
and we do not trace them in the classic writers. When the dea 
matres are figured on the altars or other monuments, they are 
always represented as three females, seated, with baskets or bowls 
of fruit on their knees, which were probably emblematical of the 
plenty which they were believed to distribute to mankind. In 



'282 THE ROMANS. [char ix. 

the accompanying representation of the upper part of an altar 
preserved in the museum at Cologne, the group of the three 
goddesses has suffered less injury than is usually the case with 
such monuments. 

We are fortunately enabled in this instance to identify the 
people to whom these deities belonged, for it is an interesting 
fact that the reverence for the three goddesses who presided over 




The Deas Matves, from an altar at Cologne. 



the woods and fields, pre-arranged the fates of individuals, and 
dispensed the blessings of Providence to mankind, may be traced 
down to a comparatively late period both in Germany and 
England. Among the slight and contemptuous notices of Ger- 
manic paganism by the Christian writers of the earlier ages after 
the conversion of the Teutonic tribes, we find allusions to the 
conjoined images of three deities, but not sufficiently explicit to 
allow us to identify them completely with those which remain on 
the Roman altars. When, in the sixth century, Columbanus and 
St. Gall arrived at Bregenz (Brigantium), in Switzerland, they 
found that the people there paid adoration to three images placed 



chap, ix.] THE BEJE MATRES. 283 

together against the wall of their temple.* Probably this was a 
monument of the dea? matres in their original country. But it is 
among the popular superstitions that we shall find the most 
distinct allusion to the three personages, who are looked upon 
often as three wood-nymphs, and who are characterised by the 
same appellations, of dominm, matronce, dames, bonnes dames, &c, 
which we find on the Roman monuments. f 

They are sometimes regarded as the three Fates — the Norni 
of the north, the walcyrian of the Anglo-Saxons (the weird 
sisters, transformed in Shakespeare into three witches) disposing 
of the fates of individuals, and dealing out life and death. But 
they are also found distributing rewards and punishments, giving 
wealth and prosperity, and conferring fruitfulness. They are the 
three fairies, who are often introduced in the fairy legends of a 
later period, with these same characteristics. In a story of the 
Italian Pentamerone, tre fate (three fairies) are described as 
residing at the bottom of a rocky dell, and as conferring gifts 
upon children who went down into it. In the collection of super- 
stitions condemned by Burchard, bishop of Worms, who died in 
1024, we are told that the German women of his time had the 
custom, at certain times of the year, of spreading tables in their 
houses with meat and drink, and laying three knives, that if the 
three sisters should come (whom Burchard interprets as being 
equivalent to the Roman Parese), they might partake of their 
hospitality. J; These were the later fairy women who visited 
people's houses by night, and whose benevolence was thus con- 
ciliated. In the older legends, the fairies are most commonly 
three in number. In later German tales, we have sometimes 
three females occupied in spinning, described as hateful old 
women ; sometimes they are old women, but not engaged in this 

* Tres ergo imagines sereas et deauratas superstitiosa gentilitas ibi colebat. 
— Anon.Vit. S. Gal. — Repererunt autem in templo tres imagines aereas deauratas 
parieti affixas, quas populus .... adorabat. — Walafrid Strabo 9 Vit. S. Gal. 

^ It was a feeling of dread in tbe popular superstition of tbe middle ages not to 
call such beings by their particular names ; and the same sentiment exists still in 
Ireland, and even in some remote parts of England, where tbe peasantry dare not 
call the elves and fairies by any other name than the respectful title of the good 
'people, the ladies, &c. 

% Fecisti ut qusedam mulieres in quibusdam temporibus anni facere solent, ut 
in domo sua mensam prseparares et tuos cibos et potum cum tribus cultellis supra 
mensam poneres, ut si venissent tres illae sorores, quas antiqua posteritas et antiqua 
stuititia Parcas nominavit, ibi reficerentur. 



284 THE KOMANS. [chap. ix. 

occupation ; in another story, they are two young women sitting 
spinning, and a third, the wicked one, bound below. In one 
instance, on a Roman altar, the middle figure seems to be bound. 
Instances of most of these will be found in the Kinder-Mar chen, 
and in the Deutsche Sagen, of the Grimms. It may be observed 
that the Norni and the weelcyrian were represented sitting and 
spinning. When Fridlaf went to consult the oracle of the fates, 
he saw, within the temple, three seats occupied by three nymphs,* 
each of whom conferred a gift upon his son Olaf, two of them 
giving good gifts and the third an evil one. 

At the beginning of the eighth century, according to a pious 
legend, a Worcestershire swine-herd, forcing his way through the 
dense thickets of the forests which then covered that part of the 
island, in search of a stray swine, came suddenly to a fair open 
lawn, in the midst of which he saw three beautiful maidens, clad 
in heavenly garments, and singing sweetly, one being superior to 
the others ; (we have here the distinction constantly observed in 
the traditionary legends between two of the goddesses and the 
third ;) he told his story to the bishop, Egwin, who accompanied 
him to the spot, and was also favoured with the vision. Egwin 
decided at once that it was the Virgin Mary, accompanied by two 
angels ; and he built on the spot a monastery, which was after- 
wards famous by the name of Evesham.f The vision is repre- 
sented on the old abbey seal. In ail probability the site of 
Evesham had been a spot dedicated by the unconverted Saxons 
to the worship of the three goddesses, and Egwin had seized the 
popular legend to consecrate it for a Christian establishment. 

A Latin poet of Winchester, the monk Wolstan, who lived in 
the middle of the tenth century, has left us a singular story 
relating to the three nymphs who presided over that district, and 
whom, differing in this from Egwin, but agreeing with the 

* Mos erat antiquis super futuris liberorum eventibus Parcarum oracula con- 
sultare. Quo ritu Fridlevus Olavi filii fortunam exploraturus, nuncupatis 
solenniter votis, deoruni sedes precabundus accedit, ubi introspecto sacello ternas 
sedes totidem nymphis occupari cognoscit. Quarum prima indulgentioris animi 
liberalem puero formam, uberemque humani favoris copiam erogabat. Eidem 
secunda beneficii loco liberalitatis excellentiam condonavit. Tertia vero proter- 
vioris ingenii invidentiorisque studii fcemina sororum indulgentiorem aspernata 
consensum, ideoque earum donis officere cupiens, futuris pueri moribus parsimoniae 
crimen affixit. — Saxo Grammaticus, lib. vi. p. 102. 

f MS. Cotton, Nero E. I. fol. 26, v°, where the story is told by bishop Egwin 
himself. 



chap, ix.] THE DE^E MATRES. 285 

generality of ecclesiastical writers when they handled the popular 
superstitions, he has blackened both in person and character. A 
citizen of Winchester one day went out to visit his farm, and 
returning somewhat late towards his home, near the little stream 
which passes by the city, he was stopped by two dark women in a 
state of nudity — 

Nam prope prsefatum solus dum pergeret amnem, 
Haud procul aspiciens furias videt ecce gemellas 
Ante suam faciem, nullo velamine tectas, 
Sed piceas totas obsceno et corpore nudas, 
Crinibus horrendas furvis et vultibus atras, 
Armatas gelido serpentinoque veneno. 
Quae super extremam praedlcti fluminis undam 
Ceu geminae externis furium sedere sorores. 
Quae mox ut coram sese properanter euntem 
Conspexere virum, surgunt, et cominus illi 
Occurrunt, et eum pariter hac voce salutant : 
" Frater amande, veni ; nostras adtende loquelas ; 
Hue celer appropria, volumus quia pauca loquendo 
Verba referre tibi : tu stans ea protinus audi." 

Wolstani Mirac. S. Swiihuni, MS. Reg. 
15 C. vii. fol. 74, v°. 

The man, instead of paying due respect to the ladies by 
listening to them, ran away in a fright, and they pursued him, 
threatening vengeance for the disregard which he had shown to 
their commands — 

Cur, insane, fugis? quo jam, moriture, recurris 1 ? 
Non nos incolumis, miser, evasisse valebis, 
Sed nobis spretis horrenda pericla subibis. 

He now gave himself up for lost, and his terror was increased 
when a third female, who had lain concealed on the hill, stopped 
his way. — It is not improbable that these nymphs haunted the 
deserted fortress of the pagans of old, and the barrow-covered 
downs which still overlook this ancient city, from which their 
worship had then been banished by the influence of the gospel. 

Tertia progreditur veniens a vertice collis, 
Terribilis vultu proceraque corpore vasto, 
Usa tamen niveo pictoque decenter amictu, 
Dissimilisque habitu vultuque prioribus extans. 
Haac etenim latuit post collem fraude reperta, 
Propter iter per quod cupiit transire viator 
Quatinus hunc caperet, furvis si intactus abiret. 

In her angry mood, the third nymph struck the inobedient 



286 THE EOMANS. [chap. ix. 

mortal senseless to the ground, and then they disappeared in the 
waters of the river — 

Nee mora, cum furiis linquens abscessit in amnis 
Gurgite, praacipiti saliens ac praepete saltu. 

The man gradually recovered his senses, but he found himself 
a cripple, and with difficulty crawled to the eastern gate of the 
city, which was not far distant. 

Another Anglo-Latin poet, but who lived in the latter half of 
the twelfth century, Nigellus Wireker, has preserved in his 
Speculum Stultorum, a tale which furnishes a still more remarkable 
illustration of the character of the three goddesses when they had 
become mere personages of medieval popular fable. Nigellus 
still compares them with the Latin Parcce. The three sisters, 
he says, went out into the world to relieve men from their troubles 
and misfortunes — * 

Ibant tres hominum curas relevare sorores, 

Quas nos fatales dicimus esse deas. 
Unus erat cultus tribus his eademque voluntas, 

Naturae vitiis ferre salutis opem ; 
Et quod avara minus dederat, vel prodiga multum, 

His emendandis plurima cura fuit. 

As they went along, they found, under a shady bank, a beautiful 
maiden, of a noble family, and rich in the goods of the world, yet 
in spite of all these advantages, she was weeping and lamenting. 
Two of the sisters proposed to relieve her of her grief, but the 
third opposed their desires, and gave them a short lecture on the 
ill uses some people make of prosperity. 

" Yenimus, ut nostis, nos tres invisere mundum, 

Ut ferremus opem, sed quibus esset opus. 
Non opus est isti, quia quam natura beavit 

In quantum potuit, et quibus ausa fuit, 
Cui genus et speciem formse tribuit specialem, 

Debet id et nobis et satis esse sibi. 
Forsitan auxilium si prsestaremus eidem, 

Posset de facili deteriora pati." 

They left the weeping damsel, and proceeded to a shady wood, 
where lay another maiden on a couch : she, like the former, was 

* The extracts from this poem taken from an old printed edition, are compared 
with a copy in MS. Harl., No. 2422. 



chap, ix.] THE DE^E MATRES. 287 

beautiful and intellectual, and, as it appears, like her also, rich; 
but she was lame of her lower extremities, and, unable to walk, 
she had been brought thither to enjoy the green shade. She 
courteously addressed the three nymphs, and showed them the 
way to the most beautiful part of the wood, where a pleasant 
fountain gave rise to a clear stream. The two sisters now pro- 
posed to relieve the damsel of her infirmity, but the third again 
interposed, on the ground that the lady enjoyed advantages 
sufficient to overbalance this one inconvenience under which she 
laboured, and which were granted to few of those who are made 
perfect in their limbs. The nymphs again passed on, and, 
towards evening, were proceeding towards a town, where, not far 
outside the gates, they saw a rustic girl, who, unacquainted with 
the delicacies of more cultivated life, performed an act in public 
which shocked the two nymphs who had shown so much com- 
passion on the former occasions. The third nymph drew the 
others back — 

Erubuere duse, visum vultumqne tegentes, 

Vestibus objectis, arripuere fugam. 
Tertia subsistens, revocansque duas fugientes, 

" Ut quid," ait, " fugitis ? siste, quseso, gradum." 

She shows them that they have here really an occasion of 
bettering the condition of one who enjoyed none of the advantages 
of fortune, and they determine to give her all sorts of riches, and 
to make her the lady of the town. 

" Quodque nequit fieri, naturam degenerare 

Nolumus, injustas non decet esse deas. 
Res et opes adjici possunt, extraque liniri 

Naturse salva proprietate sua. 
Nos igitur quibus est super his collata potestas, 

Demus abundanti munera magna manu, 
Divitias et opes, census, fundos, et honores, 

Prsedia, montana, pascua, prata, greges ; 
Urbis et istius dominam statuamus eandem, 

Ut nihil in nostro munere desit ei." 

It may be observed, that from the Poenitentiale of Baldwin, 
bishop of Exeter, the contemporary of Nigellus Wireker, who 
composed this work for the use of his own diocese, it would 
appear then to have been the common practice in England, to lay 
the table with three knives (at night, of course) to conciliate these 



288 THE ROMANS. [chap. ix. 

three personages, that they might confer good gifts on children 
born in the house.* 

In a fabliau of the thirteenth century, of so indelicate a 
character that we cannot even mention its title, the three 
goddesses appear in the character of three beautiful fairies 
bathing in a fountain, and are still endowed with the same quality 
of conferring benefits. There was a beautiful shady fountain in 
the midst of a fair meadow — 

En la fontaine se baignoient 
Trois puceles preuz et senees, 
Qui de biaute sembloient fees ; 
Lor robes a tout lor chemises 
Orent desor un arbre raises. 

A knight passing that way, very un gallantly seizes upon their 
dresses; but, softened by their urgent entreaties, he restores 
them. In return for this courtesy, each of them confer a gift 
upon him : the gift of the first was that he should be received 
into favour wherever he went ; that of the second was, that he 
should always be successful in his suits to the ladies ; and the 
third, who here again appears as giving something totally contrary 
in character to that of her two companions, conferred a gift which 
cannot easily be named. In a manuscript in the British Museum 
(MS. Harl. No. 2253), there is a different version of this fabliau, 
w r hich seems to be the one current in England at the beginning 
of the fourteenth century; in it the scene of the nymphs 
bathing is thus described : — 

Ce fust en este quant la flour 
Verdist e dount bon odour, 
E les oylsels sunt chauntanz, 
E demenent solas graunz. 
Come il ererent en une pleyne 
Qe ert delees une fonteyne, 
Si virent un petit russhel, 
Anke petit mes molt bele; 
Yleque virent treis damoiseles, 
Sages, cortoises, e tresbeles, 
Qu'en la russhele se bagnerent, 
Se desdurent e solacerent. 

Roman monuments commemorative of the dece matres are by 
no means uncommon in Britain. The lower portion, much 

* Qui mensam prseparavit, cum tribus cultellis in famulatum personarum, ut 
ibi nascentibus bona prasdestinent. — Liber Pcenitent. Baldw, Iscani Episc, MS. 
Cotton. Faustina A. viii. fol. 32 ; r°. 



CHAP. IX.] 



THE DEM MATRES. 



289 



damaged, of a large sculpture of the deae matres was found in 
digging to the Roman level in Hart- 
street, in the City of London, and 
a good and correct engraving of it is 
given in Mr. Roach Smith's " Collec- 
tanea Antiqua." It is now in the 
Guildhall. Monuments of the three 
goddesses have been met with at An- 
caster and at Lincoln. An altar 
dedicated to them has been found at 
York; and more northwardly, espe- 
cially in the Wall districts, where the 
Teutonic race predominated, they are 
very common. At Binchester, in Dur- 
ham (Vinovium), an altar was found 
dedicated deab mateib q l o, which 
has been interpreted, deabus matribus 
qua locum occupant, to the dese matres 
who occupy the place. This was in 
accordance with the popular belief of the Germans, that every 
place had its presiding mothers. An altar found at Risingham, 
and represented in the annexed cut, is dedicated to the trans- 
marine mothers, by one who preferred the presiding deities of 
his native land : — - 




Altar found at Risingham 
{Habitancum). 



matribv To the mothers 

S trama transmarine, 

rinis ivl Julius Victor 

victor . v . s . L . m performs a vow willingly and dutifully. 



An altar found at Brougham, in Westmoreland, was dedicated 
to the transmarine mothers by a vexillation of Germans, which is a 
further indication of the country to which these deities belong : — 



DEABVS MATRIBVS 
TRAMAR VEX GERMA 
NORVM PRO SALVTE 
RP V S L M 



To the goddess mothers 
transmarine, the vexillation of 
Germans, for the safety 
of the state, perform a vow willingly 
and dutifully. 



A broken tablet found near Old Penrith, in Cumberland, was 
inscribed by a vexillation, of which the name of the country is 



290 THE ROMANS. [chap. ix. 

Jost, to the transmarine mothers, in conjunction with the emperor, 
Alexander Severus, and his mother, Mammsea : — 

DEABVS MATRIBYS TRAMARINIS 
ET N IMP ALEXANDRI AVG ET IVL MAM 
MEAE MATR AVG N ET CASTRORVM TO 
TI . . . . DOMVI DIVINAE AE 
.... LATIO .... 

An altar found at York, with a somewhat difficult inscription, 
has been interpreted as dedicated, matribus Africis, Italicis, 
Gallicis, to the mothers of Africa, Italy, and Gaul ; but this 
interpretation is rather doubtful. Another inscription found in 
England goes still further ; it is a dedication, matribus omnium 
gentium, to the mothers of all nations. An altar found at 
Stanwicks, in Cumberland, was dedicated to the domestic 
mothers, matribus domesticis. Another, found at Cramond, in 
Scotland, was dedicated by the first cohort of Tungrians to the 
mothers of Alaterva and of the fields, matribus Alatervis et 
matribus campestribus. A slab found at Ben well (Condercum) 
commemorates the erection of a temple to the mothers of the 
fields — matribus campestribus — by the prefect of the first wing of 
Asturians from Spain. Curiously enough, an altar found at the 
same place, and which had, perhaps, been placed in the temple, 
was dedicated to the three deities under the title of lamice, 
denoting their noxious qualities, lamiis tribvs. Other altars, 
dedicated diis Matribus, have been found at Ribchester, South 
Shields, &c. ; and one at Binchester, with the inscription matribvs 
sacrvm. Broken sculptures of the deaB matres have been found 
at Netherby and other places in the north. 

Mr. Roach Smith has given examples, from Germany, of dedi- 
cations matronis Afliabus (the one engraved in our cut on p. 282), 
Mahlinehis, Hamavehis, Humanehabus, matribus Treveris, and a 
great many others, which are evidently named from places ; and 
he remarks that " it will be observed, that while in Germany the 
adjective always represents the locality, in those found in England 
it is merely a general epithet, as though the divinities addressed 
were those of strangers to the country." 

The worship of the German or other colonists, as far as it was 
derived from their native countries, seems to have been generally 
directed to those popular deities which were not known to them 
by distinctive names. The names of the gods appear to have 



CHAP. IX.] 



GODS OF THE AUXILIARIES. 



291 



been regarded as too sacred to be entrusted to every tongue. 
Hence, in almost all cases where we can trace the origin of the 
uames of such deities on altars in Roman Britain, they are found 
to be derived from the names of places, from whence probably the 
dedicators derived their origin. There are, however, one or two 
exceptions of names of foreign deities, which, from their frequent 
recurrence, must have belonged to a national mythology. Thus, 
in the north of England, several altars have been found dedicated to 
a god whose name appears to have been Veteres, Vetires, or Vetiris. 
At Netherby, in Cumberland, which appears to have been occupied 
by Dacians, two altars have been found, one dedicated deo vetiei 
sancto, the other deo mogonti vitiees. At Lanchester, in the 
county of Durham, a small altar bore the simple inscription, deo 
vit. Another found at Ebchester, in the same county, on one 
side of which was the figure of a boar, and on the other that of a 
toad, had the following inscription : — 



DEO 
VITIEI 
MAXIMV 
S V s 



To the god 
Vitires, 
Maximus 
performs a vow. 



Two altars of the same deity have been found at Benwell 
(Conderciim), in both of which he is distinguished by the epithet 




Roman Altar found at Ben-veil (Condercum) . 



sanctus, or holy ; on the first, which is represented in the accom- 
panying cut, the inscription is merely deo vetri sanct, to the 

u 2 



292 THE ROMANS. [chap. ix. 

holy god Yetris. This altar has the usual figures of the imple- 
ments of sacrifice. The other has the figure of a hog, with the 
inscription vitirb v s, which is either vitirbus, or vitirb votum 
solvit. The station at Benwell was occupied by Asturians. An 
altar at Thirlwall Castle, also on Hadrian's wall, was dedicated 
deo sancto veteri. Three altars to this god have been found at 
Carvoran (Magna), which was occupied by Dalmatians. The 
inscription on one was : — 



DEO 


To the god 


VITIRI 


Vitires, 


MENI 


Menius 


DABA 


Dada 


V S L M 


fulfilled a vow willingly and dutifully. 



A second had an inscription, of which the commencement 
was deo vitirine . . . , the last two letters of which may be the 
commencement of another word, though, I think, there has also 
been found an altar dedicated deo veterino. The third of the 
Carvoran altars bore the inscription : — 



DIRVS 


To the rustic gods 


VITIRIBVS 


Vitires, 


DECCIVS 


Deccius 


V . S . L . M 


performs a vow willingly and dutifully. 



I translate it according to a suggestion which has been made that 
the first line should be read, diis rusticis. On some other altars 
the name is in the plural, veteribus, and veterubus. As the altars 
were dedicated apparently by people of widely different countries, 
they give us no assistance in appropriating this deity. The word 
has been supposed to be identical with Vithris, one of the names 
of the northern Odin, the Woden of the Germans. 

Another deity, whose altars are found chiefly in Cumberland, 
where they are numerous, was named Belatucadrus ; by which 
name, without any epithet, a small altar found at Ellenborough 
was dedicated by Julius Civilis. Several other altars dedicated to 
this deity have been found at Netherby, Castlesteads, Burgh-on- 
the-Sands, Bankshead, and other places. In some instances, as 
in an altar found at Drumburgh, the deity is addressed by the 
epithet, deo sancto belatvcadro. In some altars he is 
identified with Mars, as on one found atPlumpton Wall, dedicated 
deo marti belatycadri et nvminib augg. Several attempts 



chap, ix.] GODS OF THE AUXILIARIES. 293 

have been made to derive the name from Hebrew, Welsh, or 
Irish, and it has been hastily taken for granted that this god was 
identical with the Phoenician Baal. Altars to Belatucadrus have 
been found at Kirby Thore, at Whelpcastle, and at Brougham, in 
Westmoreland. The one at Brougham was dedicated by a man 
named Andagus, which sounds like a Teutonic name. 

In Cumberland also are found rather frequently altars dedi- 
cated to a god named Cocideus or Cocidius. Four were found 
at Bankshead and Howgill. One at Netherby — dedicated deo 
sancto cociDio — gives him the same epithet which has been 
before applied to Vetires and Belatucadrus. He is also identified 
with Mars in an inscription at Lancaster, deo sancto mabti 
cocidio, as well as in another found at Old Wall, in Cumberland. 
The latter was dedicated by a soldier of the first cohort of 
Dacians. Of the two found at Bankshead, one was dedicated by a 
soldier of the second legion, the other by the sixth. An altar was 
found at Bewcastle dedicated sancto cocideo tavrvnc. It is 
probable that somewhere in the neighbourhood of Bankshead or 
Howgill there has been a temple dedicated to this god, important 
enough to give its name to a small town. The anonymous 
geographer of Ravenna mentions a town in this part of the country 
which in the ordinary printed text is called Fanocedi, but one of 
the manuscripts gives Fanococidi, which is no doubt the right 
reading. The place was called Fanum Cocidi, from the temple 
of the deity. An altar to Cocidius at Netherby was dedicated by 
a tribune of the first cohort of Nervians. 

Another deity, whose altars are found chiefly in Cumberland, 
is called, in the dative case, Mogonti ; perhaps the nominative was 
Mogontis. An altar at Netherby, mentioned above, seems to 
identify him with Vetires. The inscription at Old Penrith, 
deo mogti, is perhaps only an abbreviation of the name. The 
name deo movnti, found on an altar at Plumpton Wall, is pro- 
bably only another form. At Risingham, in Northumberland 
{Habitancum), an altar was found with the inscription : — 

mogo^tt cad To Mogontis Cad . . . 

et . n . D . N . avg and the deity of our lord the Augustus, 

m . g . secvndinvs Marcus Gaius Secundums, 

bf . cos . habita a beneficiary of the consul, at 

NCI prima sta the first station of Habitancum, 

peo se et svis pos placed it for himself and his family. 



294 THE ROMANS. [chap. ix. 

Another altar in the same place was dedicated dec- movno cad. 
Horsley supposes that Cad refers to the Caledonian tribe of 
the Gadeni, which I think is at least very doubtful. It appears 
that a cohort of Vangiones from Belgic Gaul was established 
here. 

A considerable number of names of gods are found only once, 
and were, there can be little doubt, taken from the names of 
places. Thus an altar discovered recently at York was dedicated 
to a god named Arciaconus, probably from the town of Arciaca, 
in Gaul : * — 

deo To the god 

arciacon Arciaconus, 

et n . avg si and to the divinity of the Augustus, 

mat vitalis Simatius Vitalis 

ord v . s . m .... performs a vow dutifully. 

A goddess Ancasta is mentioned on an altar found at Bittern, in 
Hampshire (Clausentum) : — 



DEAE 


To the goddess 


ANCA 


Ancas- 


STAE G 


ta, 


EMINV 


Geminus 


S MANTI 


Mantius 


V S L M 


performs a vow willingly and dutifully. 



At Birrens, in Scotland, is a dedication to a goddess Brigantia, 
with a winged figure of the deity, holding a spear in her right 
hand, and a globe in the left. It was supposed that this was the 
deity of the country of the Brigantes, but I am not aware that 
this country was ever called Brigantia, and it is not probable 
that the conqueror would worship the deity of a vanquished 
tribe. I feel more inclined to suppose the name was taken 
from Brigantium, in Switzerland, a town which occupied the 
site of the modern Bregentz. An altar found at Chester was 
dedicated deae kvmphae brig, which in this case would be " to 
the nymph goddess of Brigantium." 

* It has been remarked that in other provinces of the empire we find deities 
characterised by similar appellations. Thus we have among the inscribed altars 
found in the country on the Rhine, one dedicated " Deae Bibracte," a name 
perhaps taken from the town of Bibracte, in Roman Britain. 



chap, ix.] GODS OF THE AUXILIARIES. 295 

An altar dedicated deo ceaiio, to a deity named Ceajius, was 
found at Drumburgh, in Cumberland. One found at Gretabridge, 
in Yorkshire, was dedicated deae nymphae elavnae, to the 
nymph goddess of Elauna. An altar found at Plumpton Wall, in 
Cumberland, gave us the name of a god called Gadunus. One 
found at Thirlwall, on the wall of Hadrian, was dedicated to a 
dea Hammia, who is supposed by Hodgson to have been named 
from Hamah, on the Orontes. Perhaps, however, this goddess 
may have been named from the Hamii, a tribe from the banks of 
the Elbe, who are found stationed in this part of Britain. A 
goddess named Harimella — deae harimellae — is mentioned in 
an inscription found at Birrens, in Scotland. An inscription, deo 
hercvlenti, occurs at BAbchester ; and one to a goddess called 
Jalona is said to have been found at Bibchester. An altar at 
Armthwaite, in Cumberland, presented the following inscription 
to a god Maponus, dedicated by Germans : — 



DEO 


To the god 


MAPONO 
ET N AVG 
DVRIO 


Maponus, 

and to the divinity of the Augustus, 

Durio 


ET RAMI 


and Rami 


ET TRVPO 
ET LVRIO 


and Trupo 
and Lurio, 


GERMA 


Germans, 


NI V S L M 


performed a vow willingly and dutifully. 



An altar found at Elsdon, in Northumberland, is dedicated to a 
god Matunus — deo matvno. A goddess named on an altar found 
at Birrens, in Scotland, dea Ricagm . . ., is shown by the inscription 
to have belonged to the Beda pagus, in Germany. Mr. Boach 
Smith, who first pointed out this fact, has also suggested that a 
title given to Neptune in an inscription on an altar found in the 
north of England, Neptuno Sarabo sino, may be explained as 
referring to the Saravus, now the Sarr, a tributary of the 
Moselle, commemorated in the lines of Ausonius : — 

Tuque per obliqui fauces vexate Saravi, 
Qua bis terna fremunt scopulosis ostia pilis. 

A dea Setlocenia is mentioned in an altar found at Ellenborough, 
in Cumberland. At Ilkey, in Yorkshire (Olicana), was found an 
altar dedicated to Verbeia — verbeiae sacrvm. Lastly, a goddess 



THE ROMANS. Lchap. ix. 



called Viradesthi appears on an altar at Birrens, dedicated by a 
Tungrian soldier : — 

deae vieades To the goddess Viradesthi, 

thi pagvs con Pagus Condustris, 

dvstris mili a soldier in 

in coh ii. tvn the second cohort of Tungrians, 

or svb sivo under Sivus 

avspice pr Auspex 

aefe the prsefect. 

I Such is a general view of the character of the religious monu- 
ments of the Boman period found in Britain. It cannot but 
excite our astonishment that among such an immense number of 
altars and inscriptions of temples, and with so many hundreds of 
Boman sepulchres and graves as have been opened in this country, 
we find not a single trace of the religion of the Gospel, j We must 
bear in mind, moreover, that a large proportion of ttiise monu- 
ments belonged to a late period of the Boman occupation ; in 
many of the inscriptions relating to temples, the building is said 
to have been rebuilt, after having fallen into ruin through its 
antiquity — vetustate collapsum ; and the examination of more 
than one of the more magnificent villas has proved that they were 
erected on the site of an older villa, which had probably been 
taken down for the same reason. I We seem driven by these 
circumstances to the unavoidable conclusion that Christianity was 
not established in Boman Britain, although it is a conclusion 
totally at variance with the preconceived notions into which we 
have been led by the ecclesiastical historians. 

The accounts of the supposed establishment of Christianity in 
our island at this early period may be divided into three classes. 
First, we have a few allusions to Britain in the earlier Christian 
writers, which must evidently be taken as little better than 
flourishes of rhetoric. Britain was the western extremity of the 
known world, and when the zealous preacher wished to impress 
on his hearers or readers the widely extended success of the 
gospel, he would tell them that it extended from India to Britain, 
without considering much whether he was literally correct in 
saying that there were Christians in either of these two extremes. 
We must probably consider in this light certain passages in 
Tertullian, Origen, Jerome, and others. In the second class we 
must place the statements of certain ecclesiastical writers who 
lived at no great length of time after the Boman period. In the 
year 314, the emperor Constantine called the first ecclesiastical 



chap, ix.] CHRISTIANITY. 297 

council, at Aries, to settle a dispute among the African bishops ; 
a list of the clergy who attended has been preserved, and is 
printed in the Collections of Councils, but I am not aware that it 
reposes upon any good authority ; in it are said to have come from 
Britain, Eborius, bishop of Eburacum (York) ; Eestitutus, bishop 
of London ; Adelfius, bishop of Colonia Londinensium ; Sacerdos 
the priest ; and Arminius the deacon. I confess that the list 
looks to me extremely suspicious, much like the invention of a 
later period. In the year 360, under the emperor Constantius, 
a council was called at Ariminum (Rimini), in Italy, on account of 
the Arian controversy, and it is said to have been attended by four 
hundred bishops. The prelates assembled on this occasion were 
to be supported at the public expense, but we are told by the 
ecclesiastical historian, Sulpicius Severus, who wrote about forty 
years afterwards, that " this seemed unbecoming to the bishops of 
Aquitaine, Gaul, and Britain, and they chose rather to live at their 
own charge, than at the public expense. Three only from Britain, 
on account of their poverty, made use of the public provision ; for, 
though the other bishops offered to make a subscription for them, 
they thought it more becoming to be indebted to the public purse, 
than to be a burthen upon individuals." If this account be true, 
and three bishops really went from Britain, they were perhaps 
only missionaries, whose converts were too few and too poor to be 
able to support them."^ 

A third class of authorities is much less valuable, and far more 
extravagant. When the popes began to claim a sovereign power, 
they were anxious to make it appear that the whole of the western 
empire had been converted at an early period, and had been 
dependent on the Boman see. For this purpose, legendary 
stories were invented which will not bear criticism. Such were 
the stories of Joseph of Arimathea and St. Paul, who were each 
said to have planted Christianity in Britain not long after the 
death of Christ. It need hardly be stated that there is no 
authority for either of these legends. According to a legend 
existing in the time of Bede, Lucius, king of the Britons, in the 
year 156, wrote to the pope Eleutherius, " beseeching him to issue 

* It seems to me that the three names of British bishops pretended to have 
been at the council of Aries, had been made to answer to the three bishops men- 
tioned by Sulpicius Severus. I think it has not been yet satisfactorily ascer- 
tained when the name Britanni was first applied to the people of the country now 
called Bretagne. 



298 THE ROMANS. [chap. ix. 

a mandate that he might be made a Christian ; and afterwards he 
obtained the object of his pious petition, and the Britons preserved 
immaculate and sound, in peace and tranquillity, the faith which 
they had received, until the reign of the emperor Diocletian." 
There are anachronisms in this story which have furnished matter 
for much discussion ; but the whole is quite as inconsistent with 
history, and with what w r e know of the state of the island, as with 
chronology. The story of king Lucius can be regarded as 
nothing more than a Romish fable. The pretended persecution 
in Britain under Diocletian is a kind of sequel to the history of 
king Lucius. A persecution of the Christians is not likely to have 
taken place under the orders of the tolerant Cons tan tius, who was 
governor of Britain when the persecution of Diocletian commenced, 
and who became emperor two years later, and in another year left 
his title to his son Constantine. The outline of the legend of 
St. Alban was probably an invention of the sixth century, at the 
latter end of which his name is mentioned by the poet Fortunatus, 
who enumerates him among the blessed martyrs, — 

Albanum egregium foecunda Britannia profert. 

In the " Biographia Britannica Literaria " (Anglo-Saxon period), 
I have pointed out, I think, substantial reasons for doubting the 
authenticity of the work attributed to Gildas, on which chiefly our 
notions of the establishment of Christianity in Roman Britain are 
founded ; and the more I examine this book, the more I am con- 
vinced of the correctness of the views I there stated. If the 
authority of such writers be worth anything, we must take it for 
granted that at least after the age of Constantine, Roman Britain 
was a Christian country ; that it was filled with churches, clergy, 
and bishops, and, in fact, that paganism had been abolished 
throughout the land. We should imagine that the invaders, under 
whom the Roman power fell, found nothing but Christian altars to 
overthrow, and temples of Christ to demolish. It is hardly 
necessary to point out how utterly at variance such a statement 
is with the result of antiquarian researches. I have stated that 
not a trace of Christianity is found among the innumerable 
religious and sepulchral monuments of the Roman period found 
in Britain.* One solitary memorial of the religion of Christ has, 

* In considering questions of this kind we should avoid, as much as possible, 
conjectures and suppositions, and accept nothing but absolute facts. Writers have 



chap, ix.] CHRISTIANITY. 



however, been found, and that under very remarkable circum- 
stances. On the principal tesselated pavement in the Roman 
villa at Frampton in Dorsetshire, the Christian monogram (the x 
and p) is found in the midst of figures and emblems, all of which 
are purely Pagan. Lysons, who published an engraving of this 
pavement, attempted to explain this singular anomaly, by supposing 
that the monogram of Christ had been added at a later period by 
a Christian, who had become possessed of the old Pagan house. 
But there seems to have been no appearance in the work of the 
pavement that it had been a subsequent insertion, and it must 
be agreed that a Christian of this period was not likely to be so 
tolerant of heathenism, as to place a Christian emblem among 
pictures and even inscriptions relating to that profane mytho- 
logy on which he was taught to look with horror, and which 
he could not for a moment misunderstand. I am inclined to 
think it more probable that the beautiful villa at Frampton had 
belonged to some wealthy proprietor who possessed a taste for 
literature and philosophy, and with a tolerant spirit which led him 
to seek to surround himself with the memorials of all systems, he 
had adopted among the rest that which he might learn from some 
of the imperial coins to be the emblem of Christ. Jesus, in his 
e¥es, might stand on the same footing as Socrates or Pythagoras. 
f We can understand, without difficulty, when we consider that 
(this distant province was, from its insular position, far more inde- 
pendent of the central influence of the empire than other parts, 
why the new faith was slow in penetrating to it, and was not 
readily adopted. No doubt, among the recruits who were sent to 
the Roman troops, and the strangers who visited the island as 
merchants, or settlers, there must have been individuals who had 
embraced the truths of the Gospel. But we must bear in mind 
also, that the population of Britain during the later period of the 
Roman power, seems to have been recruited more and more from 
the Pagan tribes of Germany aud the North. I 

J 
at times taken for granted that certain modes of interments, or forms of ornament, 
indicated the sepulchres of followers of the gospel. Thus some have supposed that 
the burial of the body without cremation was an evidence of Christianity, which 
certainly is not the case. Others have insisted that the presence of a wreath, or 
a palm-branch, among the ornaments of a sepulchral inscription, is a proof that 
it stood over the body of a Christian. Before, however, we can take this for 
granted, we must be satisfied that such an ornament could not he employed on a 
Pagan monumen'. 



300 THE ROMANS. [chap x. 



CHAPTER X. 

?v!odes of Sepulture in Roman Britain — Cremation, and Urn-Burial — Modes of 
Interment — Burial of the Body entire — Sarcophagi — Coffins of Baked Clay, 
Lead, and Wood — Barrows — Sepulchral Chambers — Inscriptions, and their 
Sentiments — Various Articles deposited with the Dead — Fulgor Divom. 

The burial customs of a people are closely allied to its religious 
belief; but the settlers in Roman Britain appear to have adopted 
exclusively the Roman forms of sepulture. We learn from the 
ancient writers that it was the earlier practice of the Romans to 
bury the body of their dead entire, and that it was not till the 
time of the dictator Sylla that the custom of burning the dead 
was established. From this time either usage continued to be 
adopted, at the will of the individual, or of the family of the 
deceased; but in the second century of the Christian era the older 
practice is said to have become again more fashionable than that 
of cremation, and from this time it gradually superseded it. f We 
find that both modes of burial were used indiscriminately in 
Roman Britain, and it is probable that the different peoples who 
composed the Roman population adopted that practice which was 
most agreeable to their own prejudices. The practice of burning 
the dead and burying the ashes in urns seems, however, to have 
predominated. 

The earliest code of the Roman laws, that of the Twelve 
Tables, prohibited the burial or burning of the dead within the 
city, and it was only in rare instances that this prohibition was 
evaded or transgressed. The same law was acted upon in the 
towns of the provinces/ A sepulchral interment, consisting of a 
skeleton laid in a tomb of Roman tiles, was found a few years ago 
in Green-street, in the very centre of the city of London ; but it 
formed an exception to the general rule in Roman Britain, where, 
as in Italy, the cemetery was always placed outside the town, 



chap, x.] BURNING THE DEAD. 801 

usually by the side of the roads which led from the principal 
gates. In the country we generally find the burial-places in the 
immediate neighbourhood of the villa, or of the hamlet. 

When a Roman had breathed his last, his body was laid out and 
washed, and a small coin was placed in his mouth, which it was 
supposed he would require to pay his passage in Charon's boat. 
If the corpse was to be burnt, it was carried on the day of the 
funeral in solemn procession to the funeral pile, which w r as raised 
in a place set apart for the purpose, called the ustrinum. The 
pile, called rogas, or joyra, was built of the most inflammable 
wood, differing in size according to the rank or wealth of the 
individual; and when the body had been placed upon it, the 
whole was ignited by the relations of the deceased. Perfumes and 
spirituous liquids were often poured over it ; and objects of different 
kinds which had belonged to the individual when alive were thrown 
into the flames. When the whole was consumed, and the fire 
extinguished, wine was scattered over the ashes, after which the 
nearest relatives gathered what remained of the bones and the 
cinders of the dead, and placed them in an urn, in which they were 
committed to the grave. The site of the ustrinum has been 
traced, or supposed to be traced, in the neighbourhood of several 
towns in Roman Britain. A Roman cemetery, found atLitlington, 
near Royston, is described in the twenty-sixth volume of the 
" ArehaBologia ;" it formed a square of nearly four hundred feet, 
and the wall or boundary was distinctly traced. At two of the 
corners, where there was no trace of interments, the original level 
of the ground was covered with a great quantity of ashes, which, no 
doubt, in each place, marked the site of the ustrinum, or place set 
apart for burning the dead. I believe the site of the ustrinum 
has also been discovered outside the walls of the Roman town of 
Isurium, at Aldborough, in Yorkshire. We are told by Herodian 
that, on the death of Severus at Eburacum, his sons caused his 
body to be burnt, and placed the ashes with aromatics in an urn of 
alabaster, which they carried with them to Rome. Persons of rank 
were burnt with greater ceremonies than were observed on ordinary 
occasions, and on a spot chosen for the purpose (bustum) instead of 
the ordinary ustrinum. A large barrow, about twenty feet high, 
and about two hundred feet in circumference, stands on the side 
of a hill in the parish of Snodland in Kent. In 1844, a trench 
was cut through the middle of the mound, and it was discovered 



302 



THE ROMANS. 



[chap. X. 



that it stood on a level and smooth floor cut in the side of the hill, 
and covered with a thin layer of wood-ashes. All doubt that 
these were the remains of an immense funeral pile were set at 
rest by the circumstance, that numbers of very long nails were 
scattered about among the ashes. As far as the excavations were 
carried, there were no traces of a sepulchral deposit; so that, 
perhaps, this was the scene of the last ceremonial of a Roman of 
distinguished family, whose ashes had been gathered into an urn 
and carried to Italy, to be deposited in the tomb of his kindred, 
while the mound was raised as a memorial over the spot where he 
had been burnt. 

The cinerary urns found in the cemeteries in Britain are 
generally plain, large (often holding as much as two gallons), of a 
hard dark- coloured pottery, and of the form represented in the two 
large vessels in the back-ground of the accompanying cut. The 




Roman Sepulchral Urns. 

other figures in the same cut are some of the varieties of urns 
which have been found containing bones and ashes. In some 
instances, where the regular sepulchral urn perhaps could not be 
obtained, vessels which were made for domestic purposes have 
been used as sepulchral urns. Sometimes the ashes are deposited 
in glass jars, which are usually of the forms represented in the first 



chap, x.] SEPULCHRAL URNS. 303 

two figures of our group on p. 226. Among the ashes we often 
find the coin, the offering to Charon ; and sometimes fragments of 
different articles which have been burnt with the body. One of 
the small unguent bottles, usually but erroneously called lachry- 
matories, is often found within the urn. 

Sometimes the cinerary urn, with its contents, was placed 
merely in a hole in the ground, and covered with a tile or flat 
stone. We cannot tell in such cases what sort of memorial, if 
any, was placed above ground, as every thing of this kind has been 
long cleared away. Perhaps each was covered with a small 
mound of earth. But when we open a regular Roman cemetery, 
we usually find the cinerary urn surrounded by a group of vessels 
of different descriptions, which perhaps held wine, aromatics, and 
other such articles. Among these are often elegant cups and 
paterae of the red Samian ware. In the cemetery of the Kentish 
Durobrivge (Rochester), the groups consisted generally of three or 
four vessels ; at Litlington they varied in number from three to 
five. They have been found similarly grouped in other places. 
In many cases traces of the decayed material seem to prove 
that each group of urns had been enclosed in a chest of wood, but 
they were usually covered above with a large tile or flat stone. 
The chest, or grave, was itself often formed of tiles or stones, 
instead of wood ; a tile was laid flat for the floor, one long tile 
formed each side of the chest, and a shorter one the end, and 
another large tile formed the cover. Such sepulchral chests 
are frequently found on the site of the Eoman cemeteries at 
Colchester. In one, opened about three years ago, which was 
fifteen inches long and twelve wide, an urn was found in the 
middle, lying on its side, containing bones, and beside it were 
three small vessels, which had probably been used for ointments, 
balsams, and other funeral offerings. Another similar chest of 
tiles, in the same locality, contained two earthenware ampulla, or 
bottles, an urn with burnt bones, and a lamp; the spaces between 
the vessels was filled with a sandy earth. The largest group of 
sepulchral vessels found in this cemetery consisted of fifteen, 
comprising two large and two small earthen bottles, six paterae, 
three small urn-shaped pots, a terra-cotta lamp, a lachrymatory, 
and the fragments of a large urn, no doubt the one which had 
contained the bones or ashes. A group of twelve vessels comprised 
an urn with calcined bones, one large ampulla and three small 



304 THE KOMANS. [chap. x. 

ones, two paterae of Samian ware, an earthen lamp, three small 
urn-shaped pots, and a bottle of blue glass with a long straight 
handle. We are told that, from the scorched appearance of some 
of the vessels, it appeared that both of these last-mentioned 
deposits had been placed on the live embers of the fire of the 
funeral piles of the persons at whose obsequies they had been 
used. The practice of enclosing or covering the sepulchral 
deposits with tiles appears to have been so general, that the word 
tegula, a tile, was often used to signify a tomb. The reader will 
at once call to mind the lines of Ovid : — 

Est honor et tumulis ; animas placate paternas, 

Parvaque in extinctas munera ferte pyras. 
Parva petunt manes ; pietas pro divite grata est 

Munere ; non avidos Styx habet ima deos. 
Tegula projectis satis est velata coronis, 

Et sparsse fruges, parcaque mica salis. 

It appears from these lines that it was the custom for the 
relatives to place on the tile, which covered the sepulchral deposit, 
garlands, fruits, and salt. 

At York, graves have been found made of tiles, in a very 
peculiar arrangement, which is represented in the upper figure in 
the accompanying plate, taken from one which is still preserved 
as originally constructed in the museum of that city. It was 
found in the February of 1833, at the distance of about a mile 
from York, on the north-west side of the Koman road from York 
(Eburacum) to Tadcaster (Calcaria). It was formed of ten roof- 
tiles, each one foot seven inches long, one foot three inches and a 
half broad, and an inch and a quarter in thickness. Four of 
these tiles were placed on each side, and one at each end, with a 
row of ridge-tiles on the top. Each tile bore the impress, leg vi 
vi (legio sexta victrix, the sixth legion victorious). No urn or 
vessel of any kind was found under these tiles ; but there was 
a layer of the remains of a funeral pile, consisting of charcoal and 
bones, about six inches thick, mixed with iron nails. Such was 
not the case with another similar tomb, dug up at a short distance 
without the city walls, in 1768. It was formed in the same 
manner, of three tiles on each side, covered where they joined 
each other by ridge-tiles, and with ridge-tiles on the top. Within 
had been deposited several urns, containing ashes and earth, 
standing on a flat-tiled pavement. One of them was nearly 





^liS^L^^^ii^ 




Romaa Tombs. 



chap, x.] LAMPS IN SEPULCHRES. 305 

entire, but the others were more or less broken. A coin of 
Vespasian and another of Domitian were picked up near the 
tomb. On each tile was the inscription leg ix hisp {legio nona 
Hispanica, the ninth legion, the Spanish). Tombs exactly similar to 
these have been found at Strasbourg on the Rhine (Argentoratwn), 
erected over soldiers of the eighth legion, which was stationed 
there. One of them is represented in an engraving in the tenth 
volume of the " Histoire de l'Academie des Inscriptions." Each 
tile in the Strasbourg tomb was stamped with the words leg viii 
avg (legio octava Augusta, the eighth legion, the Augustan). 

Sepulchral chests made of stone are much more rare in Roman 
burial-places than those formed of tiles. One of the most 
remarkable was that found at Avisford in Sussex, in 1817, which 
is represented in the middle figure (No. 2) in our plate. Avisford 
is in the immediate neighbourhood of several large Roman villas, 
not far from that of Bignor, and no doubt this sepulchre contained 
the last remains of one of their denizens. It appears to have 
been a chest formed out of a solid stone, and covered with a flat 
slab or lid. In the middle was a large square vase of fine green 
glass, like those already alluded to, containing calcined bones. 
Around it were arranged on the floor of the chest, three elegantly 
shaped earthen vases with handles, several paterae, a pair of 
sandals studded with numerous little hexagonal brass nails fanci- 
fully arranged, three lamps placed on supporting projections of 
the stone, an oval dish and handle escalloped round the edge, 
containing a transparent agate of the form and size of a pigeon's 
egg, and a small double-handled glass bottle placed in one of the 
paterae. Lamps are frequently found in Roman sepulchres, and 
popular superstition has given rise to stories which represent 
them as being discovered still burning in ancient sepulchral 
vaults. This notion is so absurd, that we cannot but wonder how 
it ever gained credit : but they were probably burning when 
placed in the grave. Among other inscriptions relating to this 
custom, Gruter has published the following, which, it will be seen, 
was intended to form three lines in verse : — 

have ' septimia Adieu, Septimia; 

sit * tibi * terra ' Levis May the earth, lie light upon you ! 

qvisqve • hvic * tvmvlo Whoever on this tomb 

posvit ■ ardente * lvcernam places a lamp burning, 

illivs • cineres may his ashes 

avrea ' terra ' tegat a golden soil cover ! 

X 



306 THE ROMANS. [char x. 

Instances occur of more singular contrivances for producing the 
sepulchral chest, or tomb. In a Roman cemetery at Cirencester 
was found a stone which had been cut into the shape of a short 
cylindrical column ; this had been sawn through the middle, and 
in the centre of the lower half a cell was cut to contain the urn, 
which was enclosed by joining the two parts of the column 
together. This probably had stood above ground. Several 
instances have been met with in which an amphora has been used 
for a tomb ; the upper part, or neck, having been sawn or broken 
off, the cinerary urn, with the other vessels and articles usually 
deposited with the urns, were placed inside ; and the neck was 
then rejoined to the body of the amphora, and the whole buried 
in the ground. An instance of this mode of interment was found 
at Colchester in 1844. The upper part of a large globular 
amphora, of a pale red colour, had been sawn off, and replaced 
after the different articles were deposited inside. These articles 
were a cinerary urn with a lid, represented in front of our group 
of sepulchral urns on p. 302, filled with calcined bones, a lachry- 
matory of pale green glass, a small earthen lamp, and another 
lamp of a finer clay, a number of iron nails, and a coin of second 
brass with the head of Faustina Junior. One or two instances 
have occurred in which, instead of the calcined bones or ashes 
being placed in an urn, the sepulchral chest was partly filled with 
a loose heap of ashes. One of the tombs at York described 
above furnishes an example of this practice. An instance of one 
of the small rectangular cists of tiles, thus filled with ashes, has 
occurred, I think, at Colchester. We may perhaps explain this, 
by supposing that, in consequence of some accident, the ashes of 
the deceased had been so mixed with those of the funeral pile, 
that it was not possible to separate them, and that therefore the 
relations had gathered all the ashes near where the body must 
have lain, and thrown them into the tomb. 

When the body was buried entire, it was interred in several 
different manners. The skeleton, as now found, appears often as 
though it had been merely committed to the earth ; but as it is in 
most instances accompanied with a quantity of large iron nails, it 
is probable that in all these cases the body was placed in a chest 
or coffin of wood. In some places, and especially at York, 
massive chests, or sarcophagi of stone, have been found, which 
appear from their forms and inscriptions to have stood above 



chap, x.] STONE SARCOPHAGI AT YORK 307 

ground. Several fine examples may be seen in the museum of 
the Philosophical Society at York ; and examples are given, from 
the plates to Mr. Wellbeloved's " Eburacum," in the third or 
lower group in our plate at p. 304. Such sarcophagi have been 
frequently found at York, and they present a very peculiar mode 
of sepulture. After the body had been laid, apparently in full 
dress (those hitherto discovered have generally contained the 
remains of ladies), on its back at the bottom of the sarcophagus, 
liquid lime was poured in until the body was covered. This, 
becoming hard, has preserved, to a certain degree, an impression 
of the form of the body, of which the skeleton is often found 
entire. Of one of these sarcophagi, which was found by the side 
of the road from Heslington to Grimston, and is now in the York 
museum, Mr. Wellbeloved gives the following description: — " On 
removing the lid, the coffin appeared to be about half filled with 
lime, excepting the place in which the head had lain. The lime 
having been very carefully taken out, the lower surface presented 
a distinct impression of a human body, over which, with the 
exception of the face, the lime had been poured in a liquid state ; 
the body having been first covered with a cloth, the texture of 
which is still clearly to be seen in the impression on the lime. 
The feet had been crossed, and covered with shoes or sandals, 
having nails in the soles ; the marks of which on the lime were 
distinctly visible, and several of the nails themselves were found 
in the coffin, in a very corroded state. A very small portion of 
the bones remained ; sufficient, however, to indicate that they 
were those of a female, and according to the opinion of a very 
eminent surgeon, that she had been buried in a state of pregnancy. 
All the teeth, except one, were found, with the enamel undecayed. 
Just above the left shoulder a small portion of a gold ring ap- 
peared, and the lime surrounding it having been carefully scraped 
away, the remnants of a lady's ornaments were brought to light, 
consisting of fragments of large jet rings, two earrings of fine 
gold, two bracelets, several brass or copper rings, one of which 
resembled a cog-wheel, about two inches in diameter, three 
finger-rings, one of them of jet, of a modern pattern, and two 
necklaces. One of the necklaces was formed of glass beads, 
yellow and green ; the other of small beads of coral, intermixed 
with smaller beads of blue glass, strung, in both cases, on very 
slender twisted silver wire. " In a coffin of this description recently 

x 2 



308 



THE EOMANS. 



[chap. X 



found at York, and also deposited in the museum, the lime bears 
the impression of a female with a small child laid in her lap, and 
the colour, a rich purple, as well as the texture of the cloth 
which covered her, is distinctly visible in the impression. One of 
these coffins, found at York, had contained the body of a large 
man, whose skull was cloven as though by the blow of an axe or 
sword. The lids of these stone sarcophagi were often fastened to 
the lower part, or chest, with iron cramps. 

Sarcophagi, for the reception of the body when not burnt, were 
sometimes made of baked clay, either in one piece with a lid, or 
in several pieces, so formed as to fit together. Several examples 
of such clay coffins have been found at York, and the neighbouring 
town of Aldborough ; in the latter place they are found somewhat 
resembling violin-cases in form. 

A description of coffin found more frequently in this country was 
formed of lead. Many examples of these leaden coffins have been 
met with in the Roman cemeteries at Colchester, York, London, 
and elsewhere. When these coffins are ornamented, the orna- 
ments consist almost always of scallop shells and bead-mouldings, 
sometimes interspersed with small circles. The annexed cut 
represents one of these coffins dug up, about six years ago, in a 
Roman cemetery near Colchester. It was four feet three inches 




Leaden Coffin from Colchester (Camulodunum). 

in length, fifteen inches wide at the head, and eleven at the feet, 
and nine and a half inches deep, exclusive of the lid. It was 
formed of a sheet of lead cast in a mould, and bent upwards on 
each side, with square pieces, soldered at the top and bottom to 
form the ends. The lid was formed by being notched at the 
head and feet, and then bent down at the edges and soldered, to 
lap over the coffin. The entire exterior was tastefully ornamented 
with scallop shells, rings, or circles, and a beaded pattern. All 



chap. x.l LEADEN COFFINS. 309 

that is known, of its contents is that, like the stone coffins found 
at York, it was partly filled with lime. The coffin itself is now 
in the private museum of Mr. Bateman, of Yolgrave, in Derbyshire ; 
another leaden coffin, found at Colchester about the same time, 
was sold for old lead, and melted down ; but from a sketch which 
was taken of it before it was destroyed, it appears to have been 
still more elaborately ornamented, chiefly with the same scallop 
shells, rings, and bead moulding. Morant records the discovery 
of a similar leaden coffin at Colchester, in the March of the year 
J 750. It contained what was called a quantity of dust, perhaps 
lime, but very little of the bones remained. " There lay near 
the head two bracelets of jet, one plain, the other scalloped, 
and a very small and slender one of brass wrought, and four 
bodkins (? hair-pins) of jet. The coffin was cast, or wrought, all 
over with lozenges, in each of which was an escallop shell. Near 
it was found an urn, holding about a pint, in which were two coins 
of large brass, one of Antoninus Pius, and the other of Alexander 
Sever us." 

Several Roman leaden coffins have been found at different 
times on the sites of the cemeteries of Roman London. One, 
dug up in Mansell-street, Whitechapel, in 1843, had contained 
the body of a child, and resembled in construction and ornament 
the one engraved above. In the immediate vicinity, and on the 
same level, were found skeletons, urns with burnt bones, and 
various articles, such as are usually found in Roman cemeteries. 
In a leaden coffin dug up at Stratford-le-Bow, in 1844, the 
remains of a skeleton were found embedded in lime. In 
Weever's " Funeral Monuments," published in 1631, we are 
informed that, " within the parish of Stepney in Middlesex, in 
Ratcliffe-field, where they take ballast for ships, about some four- 
teen or fifteen years ago, there was found two monuments, the 
one of stone, wherein was the bones of a man, the other a chest of 
lead, the upper part being garnished with scallop shells, and a 
crolister border. At the head of the coffin and the foot, there 
were two jars, of a three-feet length, standing, and on the sides 
a number of bottles of glistening red earth, some painted, and 
many great vials of glass, some six, some eight square, having a 
whitish liquor within them. Within the chest was the body of a 
woman, as the chirurgians judged by the skull. On either side 
of her there were two sceptres of ivory, eighteen inches long, and 



310 THE ROMANS. [chap. x. 

on her breast a little figure of Cupid, neatly cut in white stone. 
And amongst the bones two painted pieces of jet, with round 
heads in form of nails, three inches long. It seemeth (saith 
Sir Kobert Cotton, from whom I had this relation,) these bodies 
were buried about the yeare of our Lord 239 ; besides there were 
found divers coins of Pupienus, Gordian, and the emperors of 
that time ; and thus one may conjecture by her ornaments, that 
this last body should be some prince's or proprietor's wife here in 
Britaine in the time of the Roman government." Stepney is known 
to be the site of one of the cemeteries of Roman London. A similar 
coffin was found towards the close of the last century in a Roman 
burial-place in Battersea-fields ; it was ornamented with scallop 
shells and cord mouldings, and contained a skeleton embedded in 
lime. Another, found in 1811, in the Kent-road, near the 
Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb, is engraved in the " Arehseologia. " 
It was bordered and divided into five compartments by the band 
and fillet ornament. In the uppermost compartment were two 
figures of Minerva, counterparts of each other ; the three inter- 
mediate compartments were diagonally crossed by the same 
ornament, and the lowest compartment contained two scallop 
shells. The remains of a skeleton were found also in this coffin. 
The leaden coffins found at York are supposed, by Mr. Well- 
beloved, to have been encased in wood. Wooden coffins appear to 
have been extensively used in Roman cemeteries in this country. 
They are traced by the marks of decayed wood, and more especially 
by the presence of large long nails which had been used to attach 
the planks of the coffin together. These nails are found in great 
quantities in the Roman cemeteries at Colchester, and elsewhere 
on similar sites. In a cemetery in Bourne Park, near Canterbury, 
several skeletons were recently found, lying near each other, and 
accompanied with such nails, from six to nine inches long. Four 
or six nails are said to have been found with each skeleton, near 
the shoulders, hands, and feet, which are the positions into which 
they would naturally have fallen from the coffin as it decayed. 
From the nature of the ground, here, as in many other places under 
similar circumstances, after such a great length of time, the decay 
of the wood had been so complete, that no further trace of it was 
perceived ; and it was rather hastily supposed that the presence 
of these nails proved that the skeletons were the remains of 
crucified martyrs. 



chap, x.] SEPULCHRAL VAULT AT YORK. 311 

In some cases, the sepulchral chest was expanded into a spacious 
chamber. One found at York, in the time of Thoresby, is described 
by that antiquary as large enough to contain two or three corpses ; it 
was carefully paved with bricks, eight inches square and two inches 
thick, and covered with bricks two feet square. When discovered, 
it was found to be empty. Another sepulchral chamber, larger 
than this, was found, as Mr. Wellbeloved informs us, " by some 
workmen in the year 1807, when digging for the foundation of a 
house, near the Mount, without Micklegate-bar. It is a small 
room or vault, about four feet below the present surface, eight 
feet in length, five feet in breadth, and six feet in height ; the 
roof being arched and formed of Eoman tiles, each of about one 
foot square, and two and a half inches in thickness. In this vault 
was found a sarcophagus, of a single grit-stone, covered with a 
blue flag-stone, containing a skeleton, in remarkable preservation ; 
arising, probably, from its being immersed in water, which had 
filtered through the earth ; the head elevated by being placed on 
a step. At the north end of the vault there was an aperture, too 
small to have admitted the sarcophagus, and carelessly closed by 
large stones. On each side of the skull a small glass vessel, 
usually called a lachrymatory, was found, one of them perfect, the 
other broken. The sarcophagus was without an inscription. The 
other sides of the vault were not seen, except that through which 
the workmen broke, and by which visitors are now admitted to 
view this interesting sepulchral antiquity." Perhaps, if the 
whole were uncovered, an inscription would be found on the out- 
side of the building. A large sepulchral chamber of rather a 
different description, and containing a variety of amphorae, 
paterae, and other articles, was found in 1849, at Mount Bures, 
near Colchester. 

Sepulchral chambers, like that found at York, no doubt 
stood above ground, forming conspicuous ornaments by the 
side of the highway. We find in Britain very few traces 
of sepulchral buildings of this kind, because where they existed 
they were no doubt cleared away during the middle ages for their 
materials. 

In some cases, particularly at a distance from large towns, the 
sepulchral chamber was inclosed in a mound of earth, or barrow. 
The mound of earth was a form of monument which belonged to 
an early age, and was perhaps adopted in the case of Romans 



312 THE KOMANS. [chap. x. 

who died in the provinces, as more durable than the sepulchre of 
stone — 

Ergo instauramus Polydoro funus, et ingens 
Aggeritur tumulo tellus. — Virg. J$n., iii. 62. 

The most remarkable Roman tumuli, or barrows, in Britain, are 
the group called the Bartlow hills, in the parish of Ashdon, on 
the northern border of Essex. They were opened a few years 
ago, and the different modes in which the internal tombs were 
constructed seemed to show that they were not all erected at the 
same time. In form they are all conical. The height of the 
largest is forty-five feet, and its diameter a hundred and forty- 
seven. Six others, which complete the group, are of somewhat 
smaller dimensions. When the largest barrow was opened, it was 
found that the sepulchral chamber in the centre had been 
constructed of wood ; it contained a large glass vessel resembling 
the second figure in our group on p. 226 : a bronze patera, with 
a reeded handle terminating in a ram's head ; a bronze dish ; a 
lamp, also of bronze ; a beautiful bronze enamelled urn with 
handle ; a folding stool or seat ; and a pair of strigils. A large 
amphora, filled with earth, ashes, and fragments of bones, was 
placed outside this wooden chest. • In the centre of one of the 
smaller Bartlow barrows was found a closed vault, built of brick, 
six feet three inches long, two feet three inches and a half wide, 
and about three feet high, standing north and south on a bed of 
chalk, about a foot below the natural surface. The covering was 
formed of flat tiles overlapping each other. When these were 
removed, the tomb was found to contain a large glass vessel, 
which is the first figure in our group just alluded to, and which 
contained bones and ashes ; a small glass vessel of the same 
form, containing a dark-coloured fluid : and a vessel of wood, 
formed like a pail, with a handle at the side. 

In these barrows the body had undergone the process of 
cremation, but in a very remarkable one, called Eastlow hill, at 
Rougham in Suffolk, opened by Professor Henslow, in the year 
1844, the body of the deceased had been buried entire. The 
tomb in this case was a miniature Roman house, of strong 
masonry, with a roof peaked and tiled on the outside. It was 
built upon a platform, fifteen feet square, formed of a concrete 
of large flints and very hard mortar mixed with sand. The 



chap, x.] ROMAN BARROWS. 313 

length of the tomb, or house, on the exterior, was twelve feet, 
and its width six feet and a half. The thickness of the walls was 
two feet, and their height at the sides the same ; the height of 
the roof, from the ground to the ridge, was five feet. The interior 
was found to be a cylindrical vault. In the middle of the floor 
stood a leaden chest or coffin, six feet nine inches long, one foot 
five inches broad, and one foot four inches deep. It had been 
formed of a sheet or sheets of lead, by turning up the sides and 
ends, after cutting out the piece at the corners. The edges were 
soldered on the inside. The lid was a loose sheet of lead, turned 
in at the edges in the same way. Within this chest lay the 
skeleton, which was in a tolerably good state of preservation. The 
leaden chest appeared to have been enclosed in wood-work, for a 
great many nails, from two to twelve inches long, were found 
lying by its side, among a mass of decayed wood. A Roman coin 
was found within the leaden tomb — Professor Henslow seems to 
say in the mouth of the skeleton — the obolus to propitiate Charon. 
A little chamber at one end, outside the vault, appeared to have 
contained glass and other vessels, which were broken to pieces. 
This large tumulus was one of a group of four; the others 
had been opened in the previous year, and had presented 
the usual appearance of urns, &c, which characterise Roman 
sepulture. 

The tomb at Eastlow lay north-east and south-west. That in 
the Bartlow hill stood north and south. The most common posi- 
tion of the skeletons in Roman cemeteries is east and west, the 
feet usually towards the east, but this is by no means always the 
case. 

The Roman sepulchral inscriptions, found in this country, pos- 
sess much interest. They are generally met with in the cemeteries 
near towns, and consist usually of a slab of stone, which appears to 
have been fixed in the ground like our common churchyard grave- 
stones. At York, the inscriptions are found on the sides of some 
of the large stone sarcophagi. Some of the slabs appear by their 
form to have been placed against a larger sepulchre of masonry. 
The inscription is often surmounted by a sculptured figure, 
intended sometimes to represent the individual commemorated by 
it. The usual inscriptions are dedicated at the beginning to the 
gods of the shades, perhaps meaning to tbe shades of the departed, 
diis manibus, which is most frequently expressed merely by the two 



314 



THE ROMANS. 



[chap. X, 



letters d.m.* The name of the deceased is then stated, with his 
age, and, if a soldier, the number of years he had served. This is 
usually followed by the name of the person who has raised the 
tomb. The age is often stated with great precision, as in the 
following simple memorial found on a sepulchral slab at 
Ellenborough in Cumberland : — 



D M 

IVL MAEITIM 

A VIX AN 

XII. M. Ill D. XXII 



To the gods of the shades. 
Julia Maritima 
lived twelve years, 
three months, twenty-two 



Another common form of inscription, omitting sometimes the d.m. 

at the beginning, closed with the 
words hie situs est, is placed, 
or laid here. We may quote 
as an instance of this formula 
a rather well-known tombstone 
found, a few years ago, at 
Cirencester, and represented in 
the annexed cut. The figure 
above is one often met with 
on the monuments of soldiers 
in the Eoman cavalry. The 
inscription must be read, — 

RVFVS * SITA • EQVES * CHO VI 
TRACVM ' ANN * XL STIP XXII 
HEREDES * EXS " TEST * F * CVRAVE 
H S E 

It may be translated, "Rufus 
Sita, a horseman of the sixth 
cohort of Thracians, aged forty 
years, served twenty-two years. 
His heirs, in accordance with 
his will, have caused this monu- 
ment to be erected. He is laid 
here." In a monument found 
at Caerleon, the formula is 
varied as follows : — 




RVFVS-SlTAEttVES-CHOVI 
TRMiVhA'ANMXLSriPXXll 
HEREDES-EXSTESTTORAVE 
H S/VE 




Tombstone from Cirencester (Corinium). 



* At Carrawburgh, in Northumberland (Procolitia) , was found an altar dedi- 
cated to tbe del manes, with the inscription d. m. d. tranqvila severa pro se 

ET SVIS V. S. L. M. 



chap, x.] SEPULCHRAL INSCRIPTIONS. 315 

D m iyl iylianys To the gods of the shades. Julius 

Julianus, 
mil leg n avg stip a soldier of the second legion, the 

Augustan, served 
xvni annor XL eighteen years, aged forty, 

hic sitys est is laid here, 

cyea agente by the care 

amanda of Amanda 

coniyge his wife. 

A sepulchral monument, found at Ellenborougk in Cumberland, 

begins with the words hic exsegeke fata, here have undergone 

their fates. We see in these inscriptions how cautiously a direct 

allusion to death is avoided. We find an exception to this remark 

in an inscription found of late years at Caerleon, in which one of 

the persons commemorated is said to have died in a war in 

Germany. 

dm To the gods of the shades. 

tada * valla yntvs YiXTT Tadia Yallaunius, who lived 

ajsos • lxy • et tadiys ■ exypertys sixty -five years, and Tadius 

Exupertus, 
EiLiYS • yixit • ann . xxxvii ' defyn her son, who lived thirty-seven 

years, and 

tys ' expeditione germanica died in the German expedition. 

tadia * exyperata * filia Tadia Exuperata, a daughter 

matri * et • eratri * piissima to her mother and brother most 

attached, 
secys tymylym near the tomb 

patris posyit of her father placed this. 

In another inscribed slab, found at Caerleon, the tomb is called 

a momonentum, and another phrase is used, — 

d • m To the gods of the shades. 

iylia * yeneri Julia Veneria, 

a * an * xxxn aged thirty-three years. 

i • alesan • con Alexander, her husband 

pientissima most attached, 

et * i • belicianys and Julius Belicianus, 

E • monime her son, this monument 

F ' c caused to be made. 

In a sepulchral inscription, given by Camden as found at Sil- 
chester, the tomb is dedicated to the memory of the deceased, — 

memoriae To the memory 

el • victori of Flavia Yictorina, 

nae • t • tam Titus Tamphilus 

victor Victor, 

coniynx her husband, 

posyit placed this. 



316 THE ROMANS. [chap. x. 

In some instances, as in an inscription at York and another found 
at London, memoria is used for monumentum, and the phrase 
memoriam posuit, is adopted in the sense of " raised a monument." 
An inscription found at Bibchester, in Lancashire, which has 
been often quoted, commenced with the words his terris tegitur 
Aelia Matrona, with this earth is covered iElia Matrona. It was 
the custom among the Romans for men of family or wealth to 
build up their own sepulchres before they died, which was usually 
expressed in the inscription by the letters v. F.(vivus fecit), v. f. c. 
(yivus faciendum curavit), or v. s. p. (yivus sibi posuit). Inscriptions 
of this kind were placed on monuments of a more ostentatious 
character, which were raised by the road-side, near large towns. 
An inscription was found at York, commemorating one of the 
magistrates of the city, which, from the form of the stone, must 
have been built in the wall of a large sepulchre. The inscription 
has been given as follows : — 

M VEREC DIOGENES IIIIIIVIR COL 
EBOR IBIDEMQ MORT CIVES BITVRIX 
CVBVS HAEC SIBI VIVVS FECIT 

which may be translated, " Marcus Verecundus Diogenes, sevir 
of the colonia of Eburacum, and who died there, a citizen of 
Biturix Cubus, caused these to be made for him 'during his life- 
time." Biturix Cubus, it appears, referred to the district of 
Avaricum in Gaul (Bourges), as the native country of Marcus 
Verecundus Diogenes. 

Many of the Roman sepulchral inscriptions found in this 
country display feelings of the tenderest and most affectionate 
description. They are addressed to the deceased by near relatives, 
who apply to them loving epithets. Sometimes they are 
addressed from parents to a child. Thus a large sarcophagus 
found at York, was made to receive the body of an infant, whose 
father was a soldier in the sixth legion. The inscription is 

D " M • SIMPLICIAE * FLORENTINE 
ANIME INNOCENTISSIME 
QVE ' VIXIT * MENSES " DECEM 
FELICIVS ' SIMPLEX * PATER * FECIT 
LEG * VI * V 

" To the gods of the shades. To Simplicia Florentina, a most 
innocent thing, who lived ten months, her father, of the sixth 
legion, the victorious, made this." A monument in the form of 



CHAP. X.] 



SEPULCHRAL INSCRIPTIONS. 



317 



an altar was found at 
with the inscription, — 
d m s 

FABIE HONOR 
ATE FABIYS HON 
ORATIVS TRIBVN 
COH I VANGION 

ET AVRELIA EGLIC 
IANE FECER 
VNT FILIE D 
VLCISSIME 



Chesters in Northumberland {Cilumum)> 



Sacred to the gods of the shades. 

To Fabia Honorata, 

Fabius Honoratius, 

tribune 

of the first cohort of Vangiones, 

and Aurelia Egliciane, 

made this 

to their daughter 

most sweet. 



A stone slab found at Bath, and which seems also to have been 
placed on a building, bore the following inscription : — 

dm To the gods of the shades, 

svcc • petroniae vix To Succia Petronia, who lived 

ANN • in • m • nn • d • ix * v petro three years, four months, nine days, 

Valerius 
nivlvs * et tvictia sabina Petroniulus and Tuictia Sabina, 

FiL * ear * fec to their dearest daughter, made this. 

Several other such inscriptions to children, chiefly to little girls, 
have been met with in this country, as well as others from children 
to their parents. A stone found at Great Chesters in Northum- 
berland, presented, under the rude sculpture of a female figure, 
the short and simple inscription, — 

To the gods of the shades. 

To Pervica, her daughter made this. 

On another, found at the same place, was an inscription from a 
sister to her brother, — 



DIS M 

PER VIC AE FILIA F 



D M 

AEL * MERCV 
RIALI CORNICVL 
VACIA ' SOROR 
FECIT 



To the gods of the shades. 
To iElius Mercurialis, 
a trumpeter, 
his sister Vacia 
made this. 



A wife is often found raising the monument to her husband. The 
following inscription was found on a sepulchral slab at Stan wicks 
in Cumberland : — 



DIS MANIBV 

S MARCI TROIANI 

AVGYSTINn TVM FA 

CIENDVM CVRAVI 

T * AEL ' AMMIL LVSIMA 

CONIVX KARISS 



To the gods of the shades. 

Of Marcus Trojanus 

Augustinius the tomb 

erected 

^Elia Ammilla Lusima, 

his most dear wife. 



318 



THE KOMANS. 



[chap. X. 



An inscription found on this line of the wall in Northumberland, 
also addressed by a wife to her deceased husband, a native of 
Pannonia, furnishes us with an undoubtedly Teutonic name ; the 
inscription is imperfect, — 



D *M 

DAGVALD * MI . 
PAN * VIXIT * A 
. . . PVSINNA 
XTITVL 



To the gods of the shades. 
Dagvald, a soldier 
of Pannonia, lived years . . 
. . . Pusinna, his wife, 
placed this monument. 



This last line is not very distinct in the original, but it appears to 
be part of conjux titnlum posuit. Several examples have been 
found of affectionate addresses from a father to a wife and several 
children. A sepulchral monument at Old Penrith, given by 
Camden, bore the inscription, — 



D M 

AICETVOS MATER 

VIXIT A XXXXV 

ET LATTIO FIL'VIX 

A XII ' LIMISIVS 

CONIV ET EILIAE 

PIENTISSIMIS 

POSVIT 



To the gods of the shades. 

Aicetuos, the mother, 

lived forty -five years, 

and Lattio, the daughter, lived 

twelve years. Limisius, 

to a wife and daughter 

most affectionate, 

placed this. 



In an inscription on a broken stone, found in the Koman cemetery 
at Bulmore, near Caerleon, a deceased lady is apostrophised by 
her husband and three sons : — 



D M 

CAESOBIA CQRO 

CA V A XLVIII REM * 

S CONTVX * * * * S ET 

MVNAT • • • ' LEST 

NVS E * ' * EONTI 

VS EECERVNT 

EILI EIVS 



To the gods of the shades. 

Csesoria Coroca, 

who lived forty-eight years. 

Eemus, her loving husband, and 

Munatius, and Lestinus, 

and Leontius, 

her sons, 

made this. 



A slab found at Carvoran in Northumberland (Magna), bears the 
following affectionate inscription : — 



D M 

AVRE FAIAE 

D SALONAS 

AVR MARCVS 

OBSEQ CON 

IVG * SANCTIS 

SIMAE QVAE VI 

XIT ANNIS XXXIII 

SINE VLLA MACVLA 



To the gods of the shades. 
To Aurelia Faia, 
a native of Salona, 
Aurelius Marcus, 
a centurion, out of affection 
for his most holy wife, 
who lived 
thirty-three years 
without any stain. 



chap, x.] SEPULCHRAL INSCRIPTIONS. 319 

Gruter has recorded a Eoman sepulchral inscription, by one 
Marcus Aurelius Paullus, conjugi incomparabili, cum qua vixit 
annis xxvii, sine ulla querela, to his incomparable wife, with 
whom he had lived twenty-seven years, without any dispute. 

When there was no near relation left, the tomb was erected by 
the heirs to the property of the deceased, generally, it would 
appear, by direction of the will. Many of the sepulchral monu- 
ments in Britain were thus raised by the heirs. The following 
inscription, found at Ardoch in Scotland, will serve for an example 
of the ordinary formula used under such circumstances : — 

dis manibvs To the gods of the shades. 

ammonivs da Ammonius Damion, 

miosis o coh centurion of cohort 

I hispanorvm the first of the Spaniards, 

stipendiobvm having served 

xxvii heredes twenty-seven years. His heirs 

F c caused this to be made. 

In an inscription found at Ellenborough, in Cumberland, the sons 
of the deceased acted under the name of his heirs/ 1 ' — 

d m To the gods of the shades. 

mori regis Of Morus Rex 

EiLii heredes the sons, his heirs, 

Eivs svbstitve substituted this. 

rvnt vix a lxx He lived seventy years. 

We have several instances of the desire among members of the 
same family to be buried beside each other. A soldier slain in 
Germany was brought to Isca (Caerleon) to be interred beside his 
father. A broken inscription in one of the stations along the wall 
of Hadrian commemorates a native of Galatia, whose father having, 
as it appears, died in Britain, the son, who died in his native 
country, wished on his death-bed to be carried into Britain to 
be laid in his father's grave. 

* Horsley observes on this inscription, " It was customary with the ancients to 
erect sepulchral monuments for themselves and families, while they were living ; 
which might possibly be the case here, with respect to this Morus Rex. But 
the monument he built might have fallen to decay, or by some accident have been 
demolished, before his death, and his sons, upon his decease, have rebuilt it. The 
word substituerunt seems to intimate something like this, which signifies the 
putting of some person or thing in the room of another which was there before. 
So we say substituere judicem; and by the Roman law the usufructuary was 
obliged substituere pecora, or arbores, in the room of such as died. It would be 
very difficult to put any other meaning upon substituerunt in this inscription ; for, 
to take it in the sense of constituerunt, is perhaps without example." 



320 THE ROMANS. [chap. x. 

. . . . il ser .... son of Servius, 

QYI NANAT who, bom 

galatia DEO in Galatia, 

bvit gala .... died in Galatia ; 

xit ann .... lie lived .... years ; 

moritv .... on his death-bed 

desider .... he desired 

eis int .... in his father's tomb to be buried.* 

It has been remarked that, to judge from the ages set forth in 
these sepulchral inscriptions, the Romans in Britain generally 
died young. The average age seems to be not much more than 
thirty. We find, however, one or two instances of longevity. A 
decurion, or municipal magistrate, of the city of Glevum 
(Gloucester) was buried at the fashionable watering place of Aquae 
Solis (Bath), who died at the age of eighty-six. Length of years 
had perhaps increased his attachment to life, and he went thither 
to seek new vigour from the medicinal waters of the place. From 
the form of the stone, we may suppose that it was placed on the 
wall of a tomb of some magnitude. The following is all that 
remains of the inscription : — 

dec coloniae glev Decurion of the colonia of Glevum ; 

vixit an • lxxxvi he lived eighty-six years. 

One instance has occurred of an age still more patriarchal. In a 
cemetery at Bulmore, near Caerleon (Isca), one or two monuments 
connected with the same family were found. On one was the 
inscription, — 

ivl * valens * vet Julius Valens, a veteran 

leg • ii • avg • vixit of the second legion, the Augustan, 

lived 

annis • C ' ivl a hundred years. Julia 

secvndina * conivnx Secundina, his wife, 

et ivl martinvs * filivs and Julius Martinus, his son, 

F • c caused this to be made. 

Close by this stone, another was found with an inscription 
recording the death of the wife of this aged veteran, and raised by 
their son. The inscription famishes us with another formula, 
dis manibus et memorice, of which we have an example in Gruter, 
found on the continent. It is interesting to find this identity of 

* The translation of this inscription is made after the ingenious restoration of 
Mr. Roach Smith, who (Collectanea, ii. p. 202) explains it , I helieve correctly, as 
follows : — . . . fllulUS SER/m qvi sxtus galatia decwbvit galatia w'xit annos . . . 
MoniTvrws DEsiDER.cm£ pafaus in Tumulo sepeliri. In the second line, nanat 
appears to be an error of the stone-cutter for nat. 



chap, x.] SEPULCHRAL INSCRIPTIONS. 321 

expression and sentiment in different parts of the Roman world. 
The inscription on the Caerleon monument runs as follows :— 

D m et To the gods of the shades, and 

memoriae to memory. 

ivliae . secvndi To Julia Secundum, 

nae . matri . pi a most affectionate mother. 

issimae . vixit . an who lived years 

nis . lxxv . c . ivl seventy-five, Caius Julius 

martixvs . fil Martinus, her son, 

f . c caused this to be made. 

Few inscriptions have yet been found referring to persons of 
any rank in society, or to officials, except officers in the army. 
We have seen inscriptions commemorative of a decurion of 
Glevum and a sevir of Eburacum. A monument found at 
Wroxeter (Uriconium), mentions an office, the exact character of 
which seems to be doubtful, though the curator agrorum, or 
agrarius, may have been the overseer, or bailiff, of the town lands. 
The monument consists of a tablet in three columns, or com- 
partments ; that in the middle contains an inscription to the 
officer ; the one on the left has an inscription to the wife ; the 
other is blank, and it has either been left so for a son, or has 
become erased. The central inscription is : — 

D . m To the gods of the shades. 

devccv Deuccus, 

s . v . an . xv lived fifteen (?) years, 

cvr. ag he was overseer of the lands 

ra tre of Trebonius (?) 

The number of years is perhaps not correctly read from the stone, 
which seems to be in bad condition. The other inscription is : — 

D . m To the gods of the shades. 

placida Placida, 

ax . lv lived fifty-five years, 

cvr . ag of the overseer of the lands 

cox. i a she was the wife 

xxx thirty years. 

A lingering sentiment of attachment to the living, caused the 
Romans to select for the sites of their tombs spots by the side of 
the high-roads. The inscription on the grave of a Roman named 
Lollius, quoted from Gruter, said that he was " buried by the 
road-side, that they who pass by may say, Farewell, Lollius." It 
was from this circumstance that the inscription is not unfrequently 
addressed to the way-faring traveller, with such phrases as siste 



322 THE ROMANS. [chap. x. 

viator (stop, traveller); aspice viator (look, traveller); or cave, 
viator (beware, traveller). They were, nevertheless, anxious to 
protect the last dwellings of the dead from neglect or disrespect, 
and warnings to those who might be inclined to offer indignities 
to the tombs are not unfrequently incorporated in the monumental 
inscription. It seems to have been considered necessary to tell 
people that they should not throw dirt or rubbish against the 
tombs, or treat them otherwise in an unseemly manner. * In 
Italy, it is sometimes expressly forbidden by the inscription to 
raise a funeral pile against a tomb — ad hoc monumentum ustrinum 
applicare non licet. Sometimes a notice was given that punish- 
ment aw 7 aited the intruder who should bury any other body in a 
sepulchre already occupied. Warnings of this kind belonged 
more properly, perhaps, to family sepulchres. A broken stone 
found at Watercrook, in Westmorland, contained an inscription 
of which a few letters at the end of each line were wanting, and 
the last line was not distinctly legible — it appears, by the form of 
the stone, to have been placed against the wall of a large tomb : — 

P . AEL . P . F SERG . BASS 

Q D LEG . XX . VV . VIX .AN 

ET . P . RIVATVS LIBE . ET . HERO 

M . LEG . VI . VIC . FEC . SI Q 

SEPVLC . ALIVM MORT 

ERIT . INFER . F . D . D . N . N 

As filled up and explained by Horsley, it may be translated : 
Publius iElius, the son of Publius, of the tribe Sergia Bassus, 
quaestor designatus of the twentieth legion, the valiant and 

victorious, who lived .... years and Publius 

Eivatus, his freedmen, and Hero .... a soldier of the sixth 
legion, the victorious, caused this to be made. If any one shall 
intrude another corpse into this sepulchre, he shall pay as a fine 

into the treasury of our lords 

A superstition, deeply imprinted in the minds of the people, 
taught that articles of various kinds burnt or interred with the 
deceased would add to the comfort of the departed spirit in the 
world of shades. The dead were, therefore, clothed in their Ml 
dress, with their jewellery and personal ornaments, and they carried 

* Horsley gives an inscription in which a still greater profanation is spoken of 

C . CAECIL1VS . C. ET . 0. L. Ff.ORVS . VIXIT . ANNOS . XVI . ET MENSIBVS . VII . QVI . 

H1C . MIXERIT . AVT . CACARIT . HABEAT . DE0S . SVPER0S . ET . INFEROS . IRATOS. 



chap, x.] ARTICLES BURIED WITH THE DEAD. 323 

with them the coin or coins to pay their passage. They were often 
furnished with wine or provisions. The occupant of the tomb at 
Avisford, in Sussex, carried with him or her a pair of sandals 
nailed with bronze instead of iron. A mirror was found in a 
Roman grave at Colchester. In the sepulchral chest, in one of 
the Bartlow hills, a folding stool and a strigil were found. 
Fictile vases and vessels of glass seem, in many instances, to have 
been interred as useful for domestic purposes. Amphorae were 
added probably for a similar reason Sometimes we meet even 
with culinary utensils. In one instance, an iron tripod, for 
placing over a fire, was found with a chain and pot-hooks in the 
middle. Almost the only articles not found in Roman graves are 
arms, and I am not aware that in any example yet known in 
Britain, a Roman was buried with his warlike weapons. It must 
also be remarked that Roman graves, rich in such articles as 
are mentioned above, are not very common. 

Branches and garlands of box and palm, as well as of other 
trees or shrubs, appear to have been also deposited in the grave. 
Such objects were also sculptured on the grave-stones, and they 
were perhaps borrowed as emblems by the Christians from their 
heathen predecessors. It has been rather hastily supposed by one 
or two writers that the presence of such sculptures — garlands and 
branches of palm — proves that the tombstones on which they occur 
were raised over converts to the faith of the gospel. Mr. Gage 
(Rokewood), in his account of the opening of one of the Bartlow 
hills, published in the twenty-eighth volume of the Archseologia, 
has made the following remarks on the traces of vegetable 
substances found there: — "In the observations made in 1832 
upon the objects found in the brick bustum" he says, " some 
conjectures were offered on a dark incrustation seen upon the 
cinerary urn. A branch of yew, or other dark vegetable substance, 
was supposed to have been the origin of it. This receives 
confirmation from the actual finding, on the present occasion, of 
vegetable remains scattered in the tomb, and adhering to several 
of the objects. Leaves were found adhering to the bottom of the 
cinerary urn, from which it would appear that some had been 
thrown in before the urn was deposited ; while round the handle 
of the lamp a wreath would seem to have been entwined. ' These 
vegetable remains,' remarks Mr. Brown, F.R.S., who has had the 
kindness to examine them, ' appear to consist of the epidermis 

t 2 



324 THE ROMANS. [chap. x. 

of leaves and ultimate branches of box, the vascular part and 
parenchyma being in most cases entirely removed ! I judge the 
leaves to belong to box {buxus sempervirens), from their insertion 
as indicated in the ramuli, from their outline, size, thickened 
margin, and arrangement, and form of stomata, which in most 
cases, however, are removed, leaving round apertures of the form 
and size of the whole stoma.' Professor Henslow informs the 
writer of this memoir, that a skeleton was lately found in or near 
Chesterford churchyard, together with a Koman vase, and that box- 
leaves lay loose in the soil near the skull and vase. Some of the 
leaves are in my possession, and they are similar to those found 
at Bartlow," Mr. Gage cites, in illustration of these discoveries, 
the beautiful epigram of Martial (i., 89), in which the box and the 
palm are connected with the last home of mortality. 

Alcime, quern raptum domino crescentibus annis 

Labicana levi cespite velat humus, 
Accipe non Phario nutantia pondera saxo, 

Quae cineri vanus dat ruitura labor; 
Sed fragiles buxos et opacas palmitis umbras, 

Quseque virent lacrymis roscida prata meis. 
Accipe, care puer, nostri monumenta laboris ; 

Hie tibi perpetuo tempore vivet honor. 
Cum mihi supremos Lachesis perneverit annos, 

Non aliter cineres mando jacere meos." 

It is, of course, to be supposed that the sepulchres, which we 
have been describing, belonged to the better orders of society. 
The process of cremation was an expensive one, and it was prob- 
ably this circumstance which gradually led to its abolition. People 
of the lower class of society were regarded contemptuously, and 
were thrown into trenches in the ground with little ceremony or 
respect. The public burial grounds for the poor were called, in 
Italy, puticuli, from puteus, a pit, on account of the unceremonious 
manner in which the dead were thrown into the shallow pits or 
trenches. The ground was not even looked upon as consecrated, 
and it was without difficulty turned to other purposes. A burial 
ground of this kind, at the Esquiline gate of Kome, was given 
by Augustus to his favourite minister, Maecenas, to be turned into 
a garden, and the change was celebrated by Horace : — 

Nunc licet Esquiliis habitare salubribus, atque 
Aggere in aprico spatiari ; quo modo tristes 
Albis informem spectabant ossibus humum. 

Lib. i., Sat. viii., I. 14. 



CHAP. X.] 



FVLGVR DIVOM. 



325 



We have not sufficient information to enable us to trace the 
gradual disappearance of the practice of cremation, but we are 
told by Macrobius,* who wrote at the beginning of the fifth 
century, that the custom of burning had been then so long 
discontinued, that it was only from books he could gather any 
information relating to it. Persons who had committed suicide 
were never allowed to be burnt, and the same prohibition 
extended to those who died in their infancy. Those who were 
struck dead by lightning were believed to have suffered under the 
special visitation of the gods, and they were interred as they 
died, and on the same spot, if it were not a place where it was 
unlawful to bury. On the continent, several Roman inscriptions 
have been found, commemorative of the effects of the " lightning 
of the gods," and perhaps marking the place where some unfor- 
tunate mortal has been thus launched into eternity. One at 
Florence bears the inscription fvlgvr divm ; a similar inscription 
found at Nimes (Nemausus) has fvlgvr divom ; another at 
Palermo (Panormus), fvlgvr conditvm ; and another at Oderzo 
on the Adriatic (Opitergium), de caelo tactvm et conditvm. 
We have here another interesting link between the manners of 
the Romans in Britain and in their native Italy. A little to the 
west of the ancient town of Hunnum (Halton- Chester s) on the 
wall of Hadrian, has been found a stone, represented in the 
annexed cut, with the identical inscription mentioned above, 
fvlgve divom. Perhaps one of the soldiers of the station here 
met his death from heaven. 




Inscribed stone at Halton-Cliesters {Hunnum), 



* u Deinde, licet nrendi corpora defunctorum usus nostro sseculo nullus sit, 
lectio tamen docet eo tempore quo igni dari honor mortuis habebatur," &c. — 
Macrob. Satumal., lib. vii. c. 7. 



326 THE ROMANS. [chap. xi. 



CHAPTER XI. 

Domestic Life among the Romans in Britain as Illustrated by their Remains — 
Dress and Personal Ornaments — the Toilette — the Household ; Furniture 
and Utensils — Female Occupations — Cutlery — Styli — Scales — Ornamental 
Articles Weapons, &c. 

If the numerous articles belonging to the ordinary usages of 
life, which have been found on Eoman sites in different parts of 
the country, were collected together and arranged, they would, no 
doubt, go far towards giving us a perfect picture of the manners of 
the population of Britain under the Romans. Unfortunately, in 
times back, great quantities have been lost or destroyed after their 
discovery, and those which remain are scattered about, mostly in 
private hands, from the want of any really national museum in 
which to depose them. They uniformly give evidence to the fact 
that the civilisation of Britain, during the whole of this period, 
was purely Roman, and that whatever races settled here under 
the banner of Rome, they accepted unreservedly its dress and 
manners as well as its language and laws. 

The dress of the Romans appears not to have varied much in 
its general character until the later period of the empire. It was 
simple in its forms, and the principal distinction between the 
garments of classes and individuals consisted in the richness of 
the material and in the brilliance of the colours. The dress of 
the male sex continued to be composed of the tunic, worn next to 
the skin, and the toga, over it ; though in later times it was not 
unusual to wear more than one tunic, and the pallium or mantle, 
a garment borrowed from the Greeks, was thrown over the toga, 
or rather substituted in its place. The tunic worn by men 
reached generally to the middle of the thighs, or not, at all events, 
below the knees. Females had a longer tunic reaching to the 



CHAP. XI.] 



ROMAN FIBULAE. 



327 



feet, and over it they wore the stola, reaching a little below the 
knees, instead of the toga, and over it the pallium, or mantle/" 
In the formation of these dresses there was not much " tailoring ;" 
they consisted of little more than pieces of cloth, linen, or 
silk, with fringes and borders, wrapped loosely round the body. 
Almost the only fastenings appear to have been fibulas, or 
brooches, which, from the numbers that are continually found on 
all Roman sites, must have been used in great profusion. We 
scarcely ever meet with even the smallest collection of Roman 
antiquities, but a considerable proportion of them consists of 
fragments of fibulae. The annexed cut represents the general 




Roman fibulae. 

forms of these articles, which are sometimes more ornamental, 
but they always, with the exception of the circular brooches, 
follow these designs. The first on the left was found at Caerleon ; 
the second, which is in my own possession, came from Boulogne ; 
the third was found near Maidstone ; the fourth, at Caerleon ; 
the fifth, at Stroud in Kent ; and the one to the extreme right, at 
Cirencester. The material is usually bronze, though Roman 
fibulae in silver and gold have been found. A fibula of the form 
of the last to the right in our group, of a large size, and made 
of solid gold, was found at Odiham in Hampshire, in 1844. 
The round fibulas appear, from figures in coins and pictures, to 
have been used for fastening the pallium over the shoulder. 
They are often more ornamental than the bow-shaped fibulas, and 
are sometimes enamelled. Lysons has published an engraving of 
a beautiful circular fibula, in gold, with figures of griffons on one 

* For the forms of their articles of dress, the reader ma}' refer to any of the 
general treatises on the history of costume, such as that by Mr. Fairholt, which 
I would especially recommend. 



328 



THE ROMANS. 



[chap. XI. 



side, and bears on the other ; it was found at Old Penrith, in 
Cumberland. 

Bracelets (armillw) for the wrists are also articles of common 
occurrence, in bronze, silver, and gold. They consist generally 
of a simple narrow ring, seldom much ornamented, and often 
without any ornament at all. Roman rings, which are more 
frequently of gold, are so varied in form that it would not be 
possible to give any general description of them. They some- 
times contain engraved stones, but these are more frequently found 
without their mounting. The frequency with which Roman 
engraved stones, or intaglios, are met with show that they were 
very much in use in all parts of the empire. Roman ear-rings 
are usually in gold, though they sometimes occur in bronze ; it 
would be as difficult to give a general description of them as of 
fingerings. The beads of the Romans, which were mostly of 
glass, have already been described ; they are found with various 
fittings and adjuncts, some of which were no doubt looked upon 
as amulets. 

Among the articles of female ornament that occur in the 
greatest abundance are pins (acus), generally of bone or bronze, 
which were used for fastening the knot of the hair behind the head, 




Bone Pins and Needle. 



and are represented as thus employed in ancient busts and 
statuettes. Those figured in the annexed cut are all of bone, 



chap, xl] HAIR-PINS; THE TORQUES. 329 

and are represented half the size of the originals. They are 
in the museum of Mr. Eolfe, of Sandwich, and are here taken 
from Mr. Roach Smith's work on RAchborough. Mr. Smith's own 
museum presents a large and varied collection of such pins. They 
have sometimes large heads, and were elaborately ornamented, 
terminating, in some instances, in a bust, or in a figure. Some 
very curious Roman hair-pins, made of coloured glass, were found 
near Dorchester, in Dorsetshire, in 1850. Martial has left us a 
short epigram which illustrates the use of the hair-pin, — 

Acus aurea. 
Tenuia ne madidi violent bornbycina crines ; 
Figat acus tortas sustineatque comas. 

JSpig. lib. xiv. 24. 

An article of personal ornament, worn by men, the torques, 
torquis, or collar, must not be overlooked in speaking of the 
subject which now occupies our atteDtion. The torques is said, 
by ancient writers, to have been originally used by the Persians 
in the east, arid by the nations of northern and western 
Europe. Virgil describes it as worn by the Trojans, when they 
came to colonise Italy. — 

Omnibus in morem tonsa coma pressa corona. 
Cornea bina ferunt prsefixo hastilia ferro; 
Pars leves humero pharetras ; it pectore summo 
Flexilis obtorti per collum circulus auri. 

It is first mentioned in Roman history in the year 360 B.C., 
when Manlius, having torn a torques of gold from the neck of a 
vanquished Gaul, placed it on his own, and received, from this 
circumstance, the name of Torquatus. From this time, in the 
wars with the Gauls, the example of Torquatus Manlius was often 
imitated, and the torques was adopted among the Romans as the 
reward of military merit. Torques are not unfrequently found in 
our island, and appear, in some instances, to be of British manu- 
facture, though in others they are undoubtedly Roman. The 
Roman writers speak of them as worn by the Britons, and the 
queen of the Iceni, Boadicea, is described by Dion Cassius as 
having a torquis of gold round her neck. This was the metal of 
which they were usually made. They consisted of a long piece of 
gold, twisted or spiral, doubled back in the form of a short hook at 
each end, and then turned into the form of a circle. The usual 
form is represented in fig. 1 in the cut on the next page. The 



330 



THE ROMANS. 



[chap. XI. 



gold was sometimes worked with more elaborate ornament into 
twisted cords, &c., and ended in serpents' heads, instead of plain 
hooks. An inscription found in France, and published by 
Montfaucon, mentions a torques dedicated to iEsculapius, which 
was made by twisting together two golden snakes. A very 
remarkable torquis of fine gold was found in Need wood Forest, in 
Staffordshire, in 1848, where it had been turned up out of the earth 
by a fox. It was formed of eight platted cords of gold, weighing 
together lib. 1 oz. 7 dwts. and 10 grains. At Pattingham, also 
in Staffordshire, a gold torques was found in the year 1700, 
which weighed no less than 3 lbs. 2 oz. It is described as being 
" curiously twisted and wreathed, with two hooks at each end, cut 
even, but not twisted." Its value, probably, hindered it from 
being preserved. The torques found in Needwood Forest is now 
in the possession of her Majesty; and an engraving of it was 
given in the thirty- third volume of the " Archaeologia," from 
which the one in our cut (2) is taken. The torques was some- 




Torques and Armillae. 



times bent into a spiral, instead of a circular, form, in which case 
it was intended for the arm, not the neck ; it was in this case 
denominated torquis brachialis, and was usually of bronze. In 
some instances it is merely a piece of metal like that in fig. 1, 
twisted into a spiral form for the arm ; but it is often much more 
massive. The elegant bronze armlet (fig. 3 in our cut), found on 
the coast of Murrayshire, in Scotland, weighed nearly two pounds 
and a half. Another description of bronze armlet, or bracelet, 



chap, xl] TORQUES; SANDALS. 331 

intended, like the one last-mentioned, for the military, probably 
as a mark of honour, was formed of a triangular bar of bronze, 
first doubled, with a lobe, and then twisted round into the form 
represented in fig. 4 in our cut. The example here given was 
found in Northumberland, on the line of Hadrian's Wall, and 
weighs about three-quarters of a pound. 

The only part of the dress of the Romans in Britain which has 
come down to us entire, is the sandal or shoe (caliga). Many of these 
sandals, taken chiefly from the bed of the Thames opposite London, 
are in the possession of Mr. Roach Smith. They are of leather, of 
various sizes, and the soles are cut as in our modern right-and-left 
shoes. The layer of leather next to the sole of the foot is close 
sewn to the lower portions, and then forms an exterior ridge, from 
which, at the sides, rise strong loops for fastening the sandals over 
the instep with straps or fillets. In nearly all instances this ridge 
folds a little way over, and protects the extremities of the toes. 
Other examples, apparently intended for women and children, 
have reticulated work, also in leather, round the heels and sides, 
of various degrees of fineness, and more or less elegant in design. 
The Roman sandals found in Britain have the soles almost always 
covered with nails, which are often very large and clumsy, though 
sometimes, as in those found in the tombs at York and Avisford, 
smaller and finer. In these nails we have another link between 
the manners of Roman Britain and those of Italy. Pliny, 
describing the scales of a peculiar fish, tells us that they resemble 
the nails of sandals ; * and Juvenal, alluding to the profusion of 
nails with which the sole of the caliga was covered, says : — 

Dignum erit ergo 
Declamatoris mulino corde Vagelli, 
Quum duo crura habeas, offendere tot caligas, tot 
Millia clavorum. — Sat. xvi., I. 22. 

The sandals are here used to represent the soldiers who wore 
them, and we know that the caliga was the proper shoe of 
the military. The nailed soles from the tombs just alluded to 
belonged no doubt to the shoes of ladies ; but the upper covering, 
whether of leather or other still more perishable material, is no 
longer remaining, and we cannot even guess at its form. The 

* "Squamis conspicui crebris atque peracutis, clavorum caligarum effigie." — 
Plin. Hist. Nat., lib. ix. c. 18. 



332 THE ROMANS. [chap. xi. 

shoe (calceus or caleeamentum), worn by the better classes of 
society, appears to have differed little in form from those made in 
modern times ; they were of different colours, and of various 
materials. The ladies, and even men of fashion, appear to have 
worn them of linen, or silk, and sometimes ornamented with 
jewellery ; the shoes of a female in a picture at Herculaneum are 
painted yellow. 

Among the Eoman antiquities found in this island, instruments 
of the toilette are by no means unfrequent. Among these was 
the mirror, or speculum, which consisted usually of a round plate 
of polished metal, set in a frame of the same shape, with a handle. 
For, when used, it was held up to the person using it by a servant. 
Several such mirrors of polished metal have been found in the 
cemeteries at Colchester ; and one, found in an extensive Eoman 
burial-place near Deverill-street, South wark, is engraved in the 
twenty-sixth volume of the " Archaeologia. " They are usually 
small ; those found at Colchester were between three and four 
inches in diameter. I am not aware that any other description of 
Roman mirror has been met with in this country ; rare examples 
of square ones have been found in Italy, and we know that the 
Romans used mirrors of glass, and that they even placed large 
mirrors on their walls and ceilings. 

.The Roman comb (pecten) was usually toothed on both sides, and 
the common material in Italy was box- wood. This was so generally 
the case, that Martial, speaking ironically of the uselessness of 
such an instrument in the hands of a woman who was bald, adopts 
the name of the wood for the comb : — 

Quid faciet nullos hie inventura capillos, 
Multifido buxus quse tibi dente datur ? " 

Ep., lib. xiv. 25. 

Bone and metal were also used. The museum of Mr. Roach 
Smith contains fragments of Roman combs in wood and bone 
found in London. In one of the Roman rubbish pits at 
Chesterford in Essex, a comb of bronze, with a double row of 
teeth, was found. It is now in the museum of the Hon. 
Mr. Neville, at Audley End. Mr. Neville also possesses a 
similarly shaped Roman comb of iron, found on the site of the 
railway station at Chesterford, Small tweezers (volsellce) are also 
frequently met with among the Roman remains in this country, 



chap, xl] THE TOILETTE ; LOCKS AND KEYS. 833 

and evidently formed a necessary part of the toilette of the ladies ; 
their use, no doubt, was to pluck superfluous hairs from the body. 
Small articles in bronze have been dug up at Cirencester, and 
elsewhere, which, from their form, appear to have been used for 
cleansing and dressing the nails. 

We have very few remains that throw any light on the manner 
in which the houses of the Eomans in Britain were furnished, 
and we can only assume, from the resemblance in other things, 
that the fashions of Italy, in this respect, also prevailed here. 
It has been already stated that the not unfrequent occurrence, in 
the remains of Boman houses, of walls which seem to run into 
apartments, and of projections at the lower parts of the walls in- 
ternally, would induce us to suppose that these were intended 
to serve permanently as seats. Moveable furniture was generally 
made of perishable materials, and consisted of articles least likely 
to be left among the ruins of the houses when abandoned. The 
only article of this description, that I can call to mind as having 
been found in Britain, was the metal frame of a folding seat found 
in one of the Bartlow hills. From the great number of keys of 
all sizes, which are found scattered about the floors of Boman 
houses, when they are excavated, there must have been many 
chests, coffers, and caskets with locks, independently of the locks 
of the doors. The interment of small caskets of this kind in graves 
has been, in some instances, traced by the existence of decayed 
wood, and the presence among it of ornamental nails and frag- 
ments of metal. Several Boman locks, mostly of bronze, have been 
found in the cemeteries at Colchester, of which one of the most 
perfect is represented in the cut on the next page. The plate of 
this lock was four inches broad by two and three-quarters deep, and 
it has evidently belonged to a chest. The key-hole was covered 
by a guard, as in modern locks of the same description. The 
forms of Boman keys are so extremely varied that it would be 
difficult to give any notion of them in a general description. They 
are most commonly, especially the smaller ones, of bronze. 
Many resemble closely the keys of the present day. Others 
present fanciful shapes, with a good deal of ornament. One form 
of key, of very frequent occurrence, evidently intended to be 
placed on the finger like a ring, is represented in our cut. The 
ring is at right-angles to the axle of the key, which is always 
very short. These keys are generally so small and delicate, that 



334 



THE ROMANS. 



[chap. XI. 



they can only have been used for locks of small caskets, which 
required the least possible force to turn them. The larger keys 
are often of iron, and they are sometimes found of a form 




mm^ ^=k^i 

Roman Lock and Keys, from Colchester (Camulodunum.) 

resembling our modern latch-keys, and were no doubt used in the 
same mariner. Two of these Roman latch-keys, found at 
Colchester, are represented in our last cut ; they are both of iron, 
the upper example eight inches long, and the other five inches 
and a half, so that they probably belonged to doors. Similar 
latch-keys were found in the Roman villa at Hartlip in Kent ; 
and they have been met with elsewhere on Roman sites in this 
country. The padlock was also in use among the Romans, who 
termed it sera pensilis, a hanging lock ; it was formed not like 
those at present in use, but somewhat like the cylindrical locks, 
which were in more general use some years ago, but are now 
becoming obsolete. 

It has already been shown how the Roman houses were warmed 
by means of hypocausts, and no traces have yet been found of 
fire-places in the interior of the rooms. We know, however, that 
in the south, the Romans had portable fire-places, or braziers, of 
metal, which they could bring into the room when wanted, and 
which might be used equally for warming the guests, or for 
keeping warm the plates or viands ; and we would fain believe 
that the exhortation of Horace, — 

Dissolve frigus, ligna super foco 
Large reponeus, — 

was as applicable in Britain as in the land of the snow-clad 



chap, xl] COOKING UTENSILS. 335 

Soracte. The appeals so frequently repeated in the Roman 
writers, that people should amare focos, love their fire-sides, and 
that they should pugnare pro focis et arts, fight for their hearths 
and altars, had doubtless some substantial foundation in the 
manners of the people. Mr. Roach Smith has given an engraving 
in the second volume of his " Collectanea" of a pair of andirons, 
or fire-dogs, of iron, discovered in 1839, in a sepulchral vault at 
Mount Bures, near Colchester. Each consisted of a frame, the 
two upright sides of which were crowned with heads of oxen, with 
a brass knob on the tip of each horn. Two very similar imple- 
ments, also of iron, had been found near Shefford, in Bedfordshire, 
in 1832, and an engraving of them has also been given by 
Mr. Roach Smith. Articles of the same character, but smaller, 
have been found at Pompeii, and in a tomb at Pa3stum. Tho 
Italian antiquaries seem to consider that they were used, not like 
the mediaeval fire-dogs, to support the fuel, but that they were 
cooking utensils, intended to support iron-bars to serve as a 
gridiron over the fire for cooking meat. The two fire-dogs found 
near SbefTord terminated in stags' heads. The gentleman who 
found them, Mr. Inskip of SherTord, has given the following 
account of the discovery, which seems to confirm the opinion of 
the antiquaries of Italy : — " I employed two men," he says, "to 
dig on the spot, and we quickly found an iron fire-dog of simple 
construction, and doubtless used by the Romans for cooking. 
After this we met with a stout iron-bar, one end of which was 
curved somewhat like a pump-sweep or handle, having a hole 
through it at the ends ; for this I could at first assign no apparent 
use ; I dug further, and found a second fire-dog, a duplicate of the 
former ; they were both in a small degree mutilated, yet I was 
led to admire the grace and spirit with which all articles of 
Roman manufacture were executed. Their designs are still more 
striking ; and, even in these homely utensils, the imitations of 
nature are of the boldest order ; the graceful turn of the stags 
neck, and the outline of the head, which form the ornamental 
part of each end, are singularly, effective ; and it is a matter of 
admiration, the simplicity of contrivance in these fire-dogs for 
cooking the greatest quantity of victuals at one and the same fire. 
To effect this, the bar before alluded to was laid longitudinally on 
one side of the stag's head ; betwixt that and one of his horns, 
another bar lay parallel, on the opposite side ; from both of which 



336 THE ROMANS. [chap. xi. 

descended two rows of hooks, to supply the means of boiling or 
roasting, the curved ends of the bars having holes through each 
of themu into which might be thrust pivots of iron, so contrived, 
that upon necessitous occasions, they would form four bars, and 
thus multiply the means of making the most of one fire. The 
end of each bar also turned up gracefully as a hook, from which 
might depend additional pots and kettles." Mr. Inskip's expla- 
nation may perhaps be altogether fanciful ; but it is remarkable 
that an utensil undoubtedly intended for cooking was found at 
the same place. This was an iron tripod, consisting of three 
curved legs turning on a swivel at the top, under which was 
fixed a massive iron ring. Near it was found a chain and pot- 
hooks, which evidently belonged to the ring at the top of the tripod. 
We have other examples of such tripods used by the Romans 
to support culinary vessels over the fire ; but a great portion of 
their cooking appears to have been performed on stoves, and the 
few supposed culinary vessels that have been found in this country 
partake rather of the character of saucepans and frying-pans than 
of kettles. The vessels found in Britain most decidedly belonging 
to the Roman kitchen, are the earthenware mortaria already 
described, and metal strainers or colanders. The former were 
used for pounding or mincing meats and vegetables, and, from 
the profusion in which they are found, seem to show that the 
Romans in Britain were very partial to made dishes. The 
strainer (colum) was used in Italy for many purposes, the chief of 
which was that of cooling wine. This sort of strainers were called 
cola nivaria ; they were formed like basins, and filled with snow 
or ice, and the wine was passed through them. Those found in 
this country consist generally of a rather deep bowl, perforated 
with small holes, and a long handle, and were evidently intended 
for taking cooked meats, &c, out of the boiler, without carrying 
the water with them — in fact, a ladle and strainer combined. 
Utensils of this kind were termed trua, or trulla. They 
are found not unfrequently in this island. One was found at 
Chesterford, in Essex, in 1847, with the bowl partly filled with 
brass coins. One, exactly similar, even in pattern, and. of the 
same material (bronze), was found some years ago at Whitfield, in 
Northumberland, along with three kettles or boilers, resembling 
camp-kettles, which were evidently intended to be placed over a 
fire. They are all now preserved in the museum at Newcastle-upon- 



chap, xl] KITCHEN UTENSILS. 337 

Tjne. The kettles are also of bronze, but of extremely thin 
metal, so that they would readily feel the fire. They have been 
patched in several places. One of them has three feet to stand 
upon, which was a form of boiler invented to supersede the use of 
a simple pot placed over the fire upon a tripod. 

A general description has already been given of the earthenware 
used for culinary and other domestic purposes ; but it would 
be extremely difficult to point out the purposes for which each 
particular form of vessel was designed, though it is probable 
that most of them were intended for the table. The mortarium, 
as I have just stated, belonged peculiarly to the kitchen. The 
amphora was used to contain wine, and also olives, oil, or honey. 
The amphora contained these articles in large bulk, and occupied 
the place of our modern barrels ; the liquids were served at table 
in the ampulla, or bottle, which was made of earthenware or 
glass, and was always distinguished by its narrow neck and 
swollen body. Hence the term ampulla was applied metapho- 
rically to anything swollen, even to turgid language ; for Horace 
talks of — 

ampullas et sesquipedalia verba. 

The other description of earthen vessel, which had the mouth 
not much less wide, or even wider, than the body, was designated 
by the general term ofolla, pot or jar. The olla had sometimes a 
lid ; it was used to hold solids rather than liquids, but it was often 
made large, to be placed on the fire for culinary purposes. Great 
quantities of vessels, answering all these descriptions, are found 
among the Roman remains in Britain. They are sometimes made 
of bronze, with very elegantly ornamented handles. Another article 
belonging to the Roman kitchen, was the quern, or handmill, for 
grinding corn. It consisted of a couple of round stones, one forming 
a sort of socket to the other, and by turning the upper one round, 
the corn was pounded — a rude method of manufacturing meal. 
Corn appears to have been kept in the house in grain, and to 
have been thus ground by the hand whenever it was necessary to 
bake. These stone querns are found frequently on Roman sites 
in this country. In the back-yard of one of the houses of ancient 
Isurium (Aldborough, in Yorkshire), represented in our plate at 
p. 163, the querns were found in the situation in which they had 
been used. 



338 THE ROMANS. [chap. xi. 

Among other articles which belonged to the culinary depart- 
ment of the Koman house, was the water-cock (epistomium). It 
is an article, as might be expected, of not very frequent occurrence; 
but Mr. Roach Smith possesses, among his numerous relics of 
Roman London, an ornamental bronze water-cock, which issues 
from the mouth of a dog's head. It is rather a singular combi- 
nation of names, that it was found in excavations in Philpot Lane, 
Fenchurch Street. 

Before we leave the kitchen, we must speak of a class of remains 
intimately connected with its purposes. Attached to Roman villas 
and towns, we invariably find large heaps of the remains of pro- 
visions, consisting especially of the shells of fish and of the bones 
of animals. These organic remains are worthy of study in many 
points of view ; they make us acquainted with the various classes 
of animal food consumed by the Romano-British population of our 
island ; and they are particularly interesting to the naturalist, 
from the circumstance that they show the existence of some 
animals — such as the bos lonyifrons — which have now loDg been 
extinct. The proximity of Roman sites is almost always shown 
by the presence of immense quantities of oyster-shells, which 
show that there was a great consumption of oysters in Roman 
Britain ; and the shells of cockles and mussels are also abundant. 
It has been supposed that the Romans fed snails as delicacies for 
the table, and it is a curious circumstance, that a large species of 
snail is often found still existing about Roman stations. In exca- 
vating on Roman sites, large quantities of shells of snails are not 
unfrequently found ; at Lymne, in Kent, (Portus Lemanis,) I have 
seen them dug up at the foundations of the walls, in masses 
almost as large as ordinary buckets, and completely embedded 
together. The snails may, however, have thus collected together 
in such places at a much more recent period than that with which 
their connexion with the ruins around would seem to identify them. 

Among the animal remains found among relics of the Roman 
period in Colchester, are horns of a short-horned ox, of the stag, 
and of a very large goat, as well as of the bos longifrons, just men- 
tioned, a species of ox, named from the length of its frontal bone, 
which is found by geologists among fossil remains, but which does 
not exist at present ; bones of the ox, sheep, and goat ; jaws, 
teeth, and tusks of wild hogs; and teeth and jaws of dogs, and 
apparently of wolves. The different forms of the horns discovered in 



chap, xi.] ANIMAL REMAINS. 839 

different localities, show that there must have heen many varieties 
of oxen in Britain. The hones and horns of animals found with 
Roman remains in London, include the bos longifrons, sheep, 
goats, deer, and swine. A deep pit attached to the Roman villa at 
Hartlip, in Kent, contained a large quantity of the hones of the 
sheep, hog, horse, and also of the bos longifrons. At a Roman 
villa at Dursley, near Gloucester, were found remains of the 
horse, stag, fox, wild boar, hares, rabbits, mice, wild ducks, 
chickens, goats, pigs, sheep, kids, lambs, rooks, and small birds, 
cats, polecats, and of a small kind of ox. The Rev. Mr. Layton, 
of Sandwich, who watched the opening of the rubbish pits at 
Richborough, furnished Mr. Roach Smith with the following 
account of the animal remains found there. " The major part 
consists of the common bones of the ox, sheep, and roebuck — 
especially the first. I have seen one head also of the ox, with 
the frontal bone broken through, as if with a pole-axe, just as by 
a butcher of the present day. It may be noticed, too, that the 
oxen and sheep were small when compared with ours ; and one is 
pleased with finding the account of Tacitus, in his ' Germany,' 
(jpecorum fecunda, sed plerumque improcera,) so well illustrated by 
the dirt-pits of Richborough." Pieces of the horns of deer, and 
other animals are found sawed off, no doubt for the purpose of 
manufacturing the different articles which were abundantly made 
of such materials. Boars' tusks are often found fitted up for 
ornaments, and sometimes apparently designed to be suspended 
on the person — perhaps trophies of the chase. 

An article found very frequently on the sites of Roman buildings, 
is the small bell (tintinnabulum), which was probably used to 
summon the slaves and attendants when their services were wanted. 
These bells are as frequently square as round, and are usually 
made of bronze. One, in the cabinet of Mr. Roach Smith, is so 
well preserved, that it still produces a clear and sharp sound ; it 
was found in the ruins of one of the houses of Roman London. 

Another article of very frequent occurrence is the lamp (lucema), 
made usually of terra-cotta. It has been already stated that lamps 
are frequently found in sepulchres. They were also used in 
lighting houses, apparently in considerable profusion, and it is 
evident that it would require a considerable number to illuminate 
a room effectively. In one corridor of the public baths of Pompeii, 
upwards of five hundred lamps were found ; and in the course of 

z 2 



340 THE ROMANS. [chap. xi. 

excavating the different parts of the same building, more than a 
thousand were collected. The terra-cotta lamp is usually circular, 
from two inches and a half to three inches in diameter, with a 
projecting spout for the wick. A hole, or two holes, in the circular 
body, allowed the air to pass, and the spout was sometimes double 
or treble, to admit of two or three separate wicks. The annexed 
cut represents two examples of terra-cotta lamps, selected from 




Roman Lamps, from Colchester (Camulodimum). 

several found at Colchester. The field, often plain, is, however, 
frequently ornamented with figures, which are no less varied and 
interesting than those on the red Samian pottery. Our two 
examples represent a centaur carrying an amphora of wine, and 
what appears to be a fuller at work. Others have theatrical 
masks, busts, mythological figures, gladiatorial subjects, domestic 
and sometimes licentious scenes, &c. Mr. Roach Smith has 
several examples of a terra-cotta lamp, on which is the represen- 
tation of a mill for grinding corn, turned by an ass. Lamps 
made of metal, usually bronze, are of rarer occurrence. One, in 
Mr. Smith's museum, which was taken from the Thames, has been 
made from a bronze cup, of a very elegant pattern, by breaking in 
one side and adding a spout. An engraving of this curious relic 
is given in the Archaeological Album. When used for domestic 
purposes, the lamp was placed on a little disc, raised on a shaft— 
a candelabrum. The metal ones, which have frequently fanciful 
and grotesque forms, were often suspended by chains, or by a rod. 



chap, xi.] LARES; THE HOUSEHOLD GODS. 841 

One of these, with the rod which suspended it, was found in one 
of the Bartlow hills. 

Among the articles of household furniture peculiar to the 
Romans, there is one class which deserves particular notice. 
These are the images of the household gods, the penates and lares, 
which answered in some respect to our mediaeval fairies. They 
were supposed to watch over the prosperity of the house and 
its occupants, and visitors were in the habit of saluting them, for 
which purpose their images were placed in the house in conspicuous 
places. When iEneas had first experienced hospitality on the 
shores of Italy, he is represented as paying his respects to the 
household gods — 

Hestermimqiie larem, parvosque penates 
Lsetus adit. — Virgil, JEn. viii. 543. 

They were called the little deities (dii minuti), and it was usual to 
propitiate them with offerings of the remnants of provisions, or 
other small articles, a custom to which Juvenal refers in the 
following lines : — 

parvi nostrique lares, quos thure minuto, 

Aut farre, et temii soleo exorare corona. — Sat. ix. 137. 

In accepting such offerings they were supposed to exhibit a sort of 
goodfellowship towards the people of the house, and in this re- 
sembled the brownies and clnrieaunes of modern times. They were 
supposed to show themselves at times in various forms, often of a 
grotesque description, and sometimes as animals, such as dogs, and 
even as serpents. A bronze figure of a lar, or household god, found 
at Herculaneum, represents him as a little old man sitting on the 
ground, with his knees up to his chin, a large head, ass's ears, a 
long beard, and a droll roguish face. There can be little doubt 
that many of the numerous bronze images of the Roman period 
found in this country, were intended for such household gods. 
Others probably owed their existence to the same love of ornament 
which loads our chimney-pieces with figures in plaster or porcelain. 
Others, again, of the smaller bronze images, were probably mere 
toys — playthings for children. We must distinguish from all 
these the bronze statuettes of the Roman deities, which are also 
not unfrequent, and which were perhaps placed in some corner of 
the house set apart for private worship. 



342 



THE ROMANS. 



[chap. XI. 



The traces of the domestic occupations of the female part of the 
household, found among Roman remains in Britain, are not very 
numerous. Much of their time was probably employed in spinning 
and weaving. In Mr. Roach Smith's museum may be seen a 
number of small implements of wood, found in excavations in the 
city of London, which, from the circumstance that when brought 
to light, the remains of wool were still attached to them, were no 
doubt used in the manufacture of cloth. Needles for sewing are 
of frequent occurrence. Several are in the collection of Mr. Roach 
Smith. One, made of bone, and found at Richborough, is repre- 
sented in our cut in p. 328. The Roman scissors (for/ex) was 
usually of the form still common among clothiers ; an example, 
found at Richborough, is represented in the accompanying cut. 
A more complete example, but differing somewhat in shape, 
is engraved in Mr. Lee's " Roman Antiquities of Caerleon." 
Scissors of the same construction as those now in common use, 
are also found, but much less frequently. Our cut presents also 
some of the commoner forms of Roman knife-blades found in this 
country; they are all represented one-fourth of the real size. 




Knives and Scissors, from Richborough. 



The knife {cutter) was generally straight on the cutting edge, and 
curved on the back. These probably have had handles of wood ; but 



CHAP. XL] 



SCISSOES AND KNIVES. 



343 



they are not unfrequently found with bone handles, well preserved. 
Several knives, with handles of bone, are in the museum of 
Mr. Roach Smith ; some of which have the ring at the end, like 
that in our example to the left in the cut, just escaping from the 
handle. This ring was no doubt intended for suspending the 
knife to the girdle. Juvenal, when describing the frugality of 
his country-house, speaks of bone handles to knives as a mark of 
poverty : — 

Adeo nulla imcia nobis 

Est eboris, nee tessellse, nee calculus ex hac 

Materia ; quin ipsa raanubria cultellorum 

Ossea. — Sat. xi v 131. 

The handle (capulus) was often made of bronze, and very 
elegantly ornamented. It not unfrequently terminated in 
the head of an animal ; in an example in the possession of 
Mr. Roach Smith it is the head of a horse, while in two found at 
Caerleon and York it is that of a dog. Roman clasp-knives are 
by no means uncommon ; and one shape, representing a dog in 
close pursuit of a hare, seems to have been a great favourite, from 
the numerous examples which have been found in this country. 
The one given in the annexed cut was found at Hadstock, in 




The Handle of a Clasp-knife. 

Essex, and is now in the museum of the Hon. Mr. Neville, at 
Audley End ; it has the remains of the steel blade shut into the 
handle. It is here represented the size of the original. Two, 
exactly similar, were found at Reculver, in Kent, (Eegulbium) ; 
and another at Kenchester, in Herefordshire (Magna). Mr. Smith 
possesses what appears to be a Roman fork, and I believe that 
other examples of that instrument have been found. There is, 
also, in Mr. Smith's collection, a steel for sharpening knives, 
taken from Roman London, exactly resembling those used by 
butchers at the present day, and still retaining the ring by which 
it was suspended to the girdle. 



M4 THE EOMANS. [chap xi. 

Spoons, of different shapes and sizes, are also of frequent 
occurrence. The one with the larger bowl {cochlear) has almost 
always a handle terminating in a point, and illustrates the epi- 
grammatic description in Martial, who speaks of it as being applied 
to two purposes, for picking periwinkles or snails out of the shell 
(with the pointed end), or for eating eggs (with the bowl) — 

Sum cochleis habilis, sed nee minus utilis ovis, 
ISTumquid scis potius cur cochleare vocer ] 

Martial, Ep. xvi. 121. 

The bowl of the cochlear is more usually circular than oval. One 
found at Reculver was made of silver, but they are generally of 
bronze. The two examples of the diminutive spoon (ligula), 
given from Mr. Rolfes collection of Richborough antiquities, in 
the accompanying cut (figs. 1 and 3), are also of bronze. It is 
not easy to explain the exact purposes of these last mentioned 



^^»«33fe3l£. 




Ligulse and a Stylus. 

articles, but they have been supposed to be designed for taking 
ointments or prepared oils out of long-necked bottles. 

The article between the ligulse in the last cut (fig. 2), is an 
example of the Roman stylus, used for writing on the waxed 
tablet {tabula). The tablet was composed of two or more thin 
pieces of wood, fastened at the back with wires, like a book. Wax 
was spread over the wood internally, and on this the person using 
it wrote with the pointed end of the stylus. The flat end was 
used for erasing what had been written, and smoothing the wax 
for writing again. Hence vertere stylum, to turn the stylus, for 
the purpose of erasing and correcting what had been ill or 
incorrectly written, became a proverbial expression : — 

Ssepe stylum vertas, iterum quae digna legi sint 
Scripturus ; neque te ut miratur turba labores, 
Contentus paucis lectoribus. 

Says the poet Horace, {lib. i., Sat. x., 72). It is from the same 



chap, xi.] SPOONS; STYLI; COMPASSES. 345 

usage that we derive the modern word style, applied primarily to 
the character of a man's writing, and thence to other charac- 
teristics. A painting, found in Herculaneum, represents a lady 
with a stylus, closely resembling the one in our cut, in her right 
hand, and the tablet in her left. The tablet and its styli was a 
very necessary article in the houses of educated people, for, among 
other purposes, it served for that of letter-writing. The letter 
was written upon the wax, the tablet was then closed and tied with 
a thread and sealed, and so dispatched to the person to whom it 
was addressed, who could rub it out, and write the answer on the 
same tablet, which was then returned to its original owner. 
Hence, when one of Plautus's characters wants to write a letter, 
he calls for a tablet, stylus, wax, and thread : — 

Effer cito stylum, ceram ; et tabellas, et linum. 

Bacchid., iv. 4, 64. 

This accounts for the number of styli which are found in all 
Eoman sites in Britain. They are usually of bronze. As the 
tablet was made of more perishable materials, it is seldom found : 
but Mr. Roach Smith possesses one of these tablets, made of wood, 
found in London, from which, however, the wax has perished. 
Other instruments, bearing some analogy to the stylus, are also 
frequently found on Roman sites, especially in London, which, 
from a comparison with the tools used at the present day by 
sculptors, appear to be modelling tools. 

Among instruments connected with the Roman arts in Britain, 
we must not overlook the compass (circinus). Two Roman 
compasses have been found at Cirencester, exactly representing 
those in use at the present day, and an engraving of one of them 
will be found in Buckman and Newmarch's work on ancient 
Corinium. Similar instruments have been found on other 
Roman sites. 

The steelyard (statera, or trutina), is also frequently met with 
among other Roman antiquities found in this island, and bears a 
perfect resemblance to those now in use. The two examples in our 
cut on the next page, were found at Richborough. A weight, found 
in the same place, is attached to one of them. The weights are 
always more or less ornamental ; they often consist of highly-finished 
busts of emperors, or distinguished personages, deities, or fabulous 
heroes, or of figures of birds and animals. On another example 



346 THE ROMANS. [chap. xi. 

of the statera, found at Richborough, the yard is notched into 
fractional divisions, and is furnished with two hooks. In examples 
found at Pompeii, sometimes a hook, at others a scale, is sus- 
pended to the end of the yard.* Scales (libra, bilanx) were 



Roman Steelyards, from Richborough (Rutupice). ( 1 // l/j 

also in use among the Romans from a very early period, and are 
often figured on coins and other works of art, but they are 
rarely met with in antiquarian excavations in this country. 

Among other miscellaneous articles in use among the Romans 
in Britain, strigils are not unfrequently found, an additional 
proof how extensively the manners of Italy had been translated 
to our clime. The strigil was a curved instrument generally 
of bronze or iron, with which the bather in the hot-baths, 
after having put himself into a sweat, was scraped- — somewhat in 
the manner that ostlers scrape a horse when he comes in hot. 
While this operation was performed, the patient sat upon a seat 
which was under the water — a seat of this kind is generally dis- 
covered in baths in Roman villas in Britain. Sometimes the 
bather performed the operation himself, but if he was rich enough 
he had a slave for the purpose. Public baths were provided with 
strigils for the use of the bathers ; but people of respectability had 

* Yitruvius gives us the names for the different constituent parts of the 
Roman steelyard : — the scale (lancula), hanging from the head (caput), near which 
was the point of revolution (centrum), and the handle (ansa) ; on the other side 
of the centre from the scale was the beam (scopus), with the weight or equipoise 
(cequipondium), which was made to move along the points (per puncta) express- 
ing the different weights. 

It should be observed that in the upper figure in our cut, the steelyard is 
turned the wrong way up. 



chap, xl] STEELYARDS ; STRIGILS. 347 

their own strigils at home, which their slave carried after them 
when they went to bathe. Hence Persius, — 

I, puer, et strigiles Crispini ad balnea defer. — Sat., v. 126. 

This is sufficient to warn us against supposing that the dis- 
covery of strigils among the remains of buildings, is any proof that 
those buildings were baths. Two strigils of bronze were found in 
one of the Bartlow tumuli, which resemble the generality of those 
found in Italy, in having a hole in the handle through which the 
hand was passed in using them. One of the same material 
found at Beculver, in Kent, more than a century ago, and engraved 
in Mr. Boach Smith's " Antiquities of Bichborough," had a straight 
handle to grasp in the hand. This latter discovery furnishes 
a remarkable instance of the danger of forming hasty opinions 
on such objects, without the previous knowledge arising from 
careful comparison. An antiquary of the time, Aubrey, who 
examined the bronze strigil found at Eeculver, immediately 
judged it to be one of the golden sickles with which the British 
Druids cut their mistletoe ! * The strigil had, indeed, a sharp 
edge turned inward, which might lead a person ignorant of its real 
use to suppose that it was a cutting instrument. The operation 
of being scraped with it could not have been an agreeable one ; 
and we are told that the emperor Augustus was subjected to 
considerable suffering by an over violent application of it. It 
was on this account customary to soften the edge by the application 
of oil. 

We find fewer remains of Eoman weapons and armour in 
Britain than almost any other article. As I have observed 
before, it is more than probable that the bronze swords which 
have been usually described as British, are purely Roman. The 
same may be said of the bronze spear-heads. A considerable 
number of spear-heads and arrow-heads of iron were found in the 
Boman camp on Hod Hill, in Dorsetshire. They are found also 
from time to time on other Boman sites. A few fragments of 
what was supposed to be Boman armour, formed both of scales 
and of rings, have also been found, and some remains of military 

* It is remarkable that the Roman bronze, under certain circumstances, 
especially when it has lain in the water where it was subjected to friction, bears 
an extraordinary resemblance to gold. 



348 THE KOMANS. [chap. xi. 

standards. Very remarkable remains of one of the latter articles 
were found near Stoney Stratford at the beginning of the present 
century, and have been engraved and published by Samuel Lysons. 
Among the extensive Roman remains found in the camp at Hod 
Hill, already alluded to, were found several spurs of iron, which 
resemble so closely the Norman prick-spurs, that they might be 
easily mistaken for them. I suspect that many of the prick-spurs 
which have been found on or near Roman sites, and hastily judged 
to be Norman, are, especially when made of bronze, Roman. As 
far, however, as comparison has yet been made, the Roman 
and the Saxon spurs are shorter in the stimulus than those of 
the Normans. 



chap, xii.] GOVERNMENT OF ROMAN BRITAIN. 349 



CHAPTER XII. 

The Roman Province — Its Divisions and Officers — the Military Force — Cen- 
turial and other inscriptions— Towns and their Municipal Constitution — 
the Coinage — -Roman Coins relating to Britain— Spurious Coinage — > 
Different methods of Hoarding Money. 

The importance of Roman Britain is shown by the circumstance 
that it was constituted a separate province of the empire. From 
the first, Britain was governed by a propraetor, who is stated, in 
inscriptions, to have been a legatus Augusti, or vicegerent of the 
emperor, from which we are to conclude that it was a province of 
the Caesar, and not a province of the people. At the close of the 
Boman occupation, when the " Notitia Imperii" was compiled, the 
governor of Britain was called a vicarius, and was honoured with 
the title of vir spectabilis. It is at this period only that we 
obtain any distinct information on the political divisions of the 
province and on its officers, and these had probably under- 
gone considerable modifications. According to the " Notitia," 
the province of Britain was divided into five departments, 
called Britannia Prima, Britannia Secunda, Flavia Caesariensis, 
Maxima Caesariensis, and Valentia. The first of these consisted 
of the country to the south of the Thames and the Bristol 
Channel ; Britannia Secunda answered to the modern Principality 
of Wales ; Flavia comprised the middle portion of the island, 
from the Thames to the Humber and the Mersey ; the country 
beyond this, extending twenty-five mi]es north of Hadrian's Wall, 
formed the department of Maxima Caesariensis ; while the low- 
lands of Scotland were comprised under the title of Valentia. It 
is stated on the single and dubious authority of Richard of 
Cirencester, that the country to the north of the Wall of 



S50 THE ROMANS. [chap. xn. 

Antoninus was formed into a sixth department under the name 
of Vespasiana. After the time of Constantine, the first three 
were governed by presidents, while the two northern departments 
were placed under the jurisdiction of consulares. These officers 
were under the vicarius, who probably resided in Londinium, or 
London. 

The vicarius of Britain was himself subject to the prsefectus 
praBtorio Galliarum, who resided first at Treviri (Treves), and 
afterwards at Arelatum (Aries). His official establishment con- 
sisted of a princeps, or chief officer; of two agents (de schola 
agentum in rebus), chosen out of the ducenarii, or judges ; a chief 
secretary (cornicularius);* two accountants or auditors (numerarios 
duos) ; a master of the prisons (commentariensis) ; a notary (ab actis) ; 
a secretary for despatches (curam epistolarum) ; an assistant (adju- 
tor) ; under assistants (subadjuva) ; clerks for appeal (exceptores) ; 
Serjeants, and other officers (singular es, et reliquos officiales).\ 
For the revenues of the country, which were under the control of 
a superior officer in Gaul, entitled the comes sacrarum largi- 
tionum, there were a collector for the whole of Britain (rationalis 
summarum Britanniarum) ; an overseer of the Augustentian 
treasures in Britain (propositus thesaurorum Augustentium in 
Britannias) ; procurators of the cynegia, or hunting establish- 
ment (procuratores cynegiorum) ; and another officer, entitled 
procurator cynegii in Britannia Biennensis. Under the count of 
the private affairs of the western division of the empire (comes 
rerwn privatarum) was a collector of private affairs in Britain 
(rationalis rei private per Britannias). The military affairs of the 
province also came at this time directly under the management 
of the government in Gaul, without the intermediation of the 
vicarius, or governor, of Britain. They were divided between 
three chief officers, the count of the Saxon shore (comes litoris 
Saxonici), the count of Britain (comes Britanniarum), and the 
duke of Britain (dux Britanniarum). The garrisons of nine 
fortresses along the coast from Portchester to Brancaster in 

* In a sepulchral inscription found near Great Chesters in Northumberland, 
a cornicularius is commemorated, but whether he belonged to the departmental 
court, or not, is uncertain. The inscription reads : — d . m . ael . mercvriali 

CORNICVL VACIA SOROR FECIT. 

+ In the interpretation of these various official titles I have chiefly followed 
Horsley ; it is not easy to explain the exact duties of them all. 



chap, xil] INTERNAL ADMINISTRATION. 851 

Norfolk, were placed under the command of the first of these 
officers, who had an official establishment composed of a chief 
officer from the office, or court ; of the general of foot in ordinary 
attendance (principem ex officio magistri prasentalium a parte 
peditum) ; two auditors (iiumerarii) and a master of the prisons 
{commentariensis) from the same office ; a secretary ; an assistant, 
and under-assistant ; a registrar (regerendarius) : clerks of appeals, 
Serjeants, and other officers. The count of Britain had an official 
establishment exactly similar, but apparently without any military 
command. The duke of Britain had under his command the 
sixth legion, which was at Eburacum (York), where, probably, the 
duke held his court, and all the garrisons in the north of Britain 
and along the Wall of Hadrian. His official establishment 
consisted of the same officers as the others. 

This rather complicated system of officials, combined with the 
numerous secondary employes who must have been scattered over 
the island, shows us the regularity of administration which at this 
late period prevailed still in Roman Britain. We have no means 
of knowing the details of government, or the character or amount 
of the taxes which were raised from the island. The military 
force, as we have before stated, was fixed soon after its reduction 
to a province, at three legions, and it was now reduced to two, the 
second and the sixth. These were also at the time of the com- 
position of the " Notitia " (the beginning of the fifth century) directly 
under the command of the imperial government in Gaul. The 
military force in Britain at this time has been estimated, from 
the information given in the "Notitia," at nineteen thousand two 
hundred infantry and seventeen hundred cavalry. 

This is the amount of the direct information we can at present 
obtain relating to the internal administration of the government 
in Britain and the amount of its military establishment. The 
Roman troops have fortunately left us abundant memorials of 
their presence in the numerous inscriptions commemorating their 
burial, their religious worship, or their labours. Both the legions 
and the auxiliary troops seem to have been constantly employed 
in works of public utility, and the share each legion, or cohort, or 
century took in them, is often indicated by their names and titles 
inscribed on tiles or stones. The latter are usually termed 
centurial stones, as they bear the name of the centuria, or troop, 
by which the building or other work, to which they were attached, 



352 THE ROMANS. [chap. xit. 

was executed. This is often expressed in the simplest possible 
form. Thus, a centurial stone found near Cilurnum {Chester s\ 
in Northumberland, is inscribed* — 



COH V 


The fifth cohort, 


CAECILI 


The century of Caecilius 


PROCOLI 


Proculus. 



Similar stones with such inscriptions as centvria peregrini, 

CENTVRIA ARRII, CENTVRIA HERENNIANI, COH VI DELIVJANA, are 

found frequently along the line of Hadrian's Wall, and in Cum- 
berland, and sometimes in other parts of the country. Sometimes, 
especially in the legionary inscriptions, there is more of ornament, 
the name being placed within a wreath or tablet, surrounded with 



A Roman Legionary stone. 

the emblems of the legion and other figures. One of these, found 
at Halton Chesters, in Northumberland (Hunnmn), is represented 
in the accompanying cut, and is to be read thus, — 

leg Legion 

ii the second, 

avg the Augustan, 

F made it. 

An inscription of this kind, found at Whitley Castle, in 

* The words centurio and centuria are generally figured on the stones by a 
mark which is here represented by a c reversed, but in reality it is more like 
a >, though it was no doubt intended for a o. A cut is given a little further on 
which shows how oddly, at least at one period, the cutters of the Roman inscrip- 
tions joined letters together. 



chap, xil] CENTUEIAL STONES. 353 

Northumberland, speaks of the rebuilding, or making again of 
some temple or other work : — 

vex . leg A vexillation of legion 

xx vv the twentieth, the valiant and victorious, 

refec remade it 

Sometimes the name of the officer who directed the work is 
added, as in the following inscription found at Eisingham 
{Habitancum) : — 

coh . i . vang The first cohort of the Vangiones 

fecit cvrante made it, under the direction of 

ivl . pavllo trib Julius Paullus the tribune. 

On a similar stone found at Rochester, in Northumberland 
(Bremenium), the name of the tribune only is given : — 

P . AEL . ERAS PubliuS iEliuS 

invs trib Erasinus, the tribune. 

The soldiers frequently dedicated their work to the reigning 
emperor, or contrived to introduce his name into the inscription. 
Thus, along the line of the wall in Northumberland, inscriptions 
to Hadrian are very frequent, which leave no doubt on our mind 
that the great military works there were executed under that 
emperor. In the same manner the neighbourhood of the more 
northern wall presents us with numerous inscriptions commemo- 
rative of Antoninus. As an example of the inscriptions to 
Hadrian along the Northumberland wall, we may cite the 
following, found at Milking- gap : — 

imp caes traian Of the emperor Caesar Trajanus 

hadriani avg Hadrianus Augustus, 

leg n avg the second legion, the augustan, 

A platorio nepote leg PR pr Aulus Platorius Nepos being legate 

propraetor. 

Similar inscriptions are found in other places in nearly the same 
words. The inscriptions along the Ante nine wall are more 
precise, detailing the quantity of work performed in each case by 
those who set up the inscription, and often very elaborately 
ornamented. They occur, moreover, in greater numbers. The 
following was found at West-Kilpatrick : — 



354 THE KOMANS. [chap. xn. 

imp. c To the emperor Caesar 

T. ae. hadria Titus iElius Hadrianus 

no. antonino. avg. Pi. p. p. Antoninus Augustus Pius, father 

of his country. 
vex A vexillation 

leg xx of the twentieth legion, 

vv. ee the valiant and victorious, made 

pp mi cdxi four thousand four hundred and 

eleven paces. 

In this instance the slab of stone is sculptured into the repre- 
sentation of a Corinthian portico ; the emperor's name and titles 
are inscribed on the tympanum ; the name of the legion is placed 
within a wreath or garland, held by a winged Victory between the 
supporting columns ; while the number of paces is given at the 
foot, on each side of a boar, the ensign of that legion. 

Inscriptions of the reigning emperors, or commemorative of 
them, are found in other places, where they have originally 
appeared on public buildings or other monuments. As we have 
before had occasion to observe, the emperors' names were always 
placed on the milliaria, or milestones. They are historically 
important as showing us the interest which the people in this^ 
distant province took in all the changes and movements of the 
Koman empire. We find now and then an inscription to an 
emperor w 7 hose reign was so short and insignificant that we could 
hardly suppose the influence of his name could have been 
felt here. A fragment of an inscription to Numerianus, on 
which remained the words imp c mar avr nvmeeiano, 
were found at Kenchester, in Herefordshire (Magna). Nume- 
rianus was the brother of Carinus, and reigned conjointly with 
him about two years (from 282 to 284). It is the only inscription 
yet found in Britain in which his name occurs. At Castor, in 
Northamptonshire (DurobrivcB,) & cylindrical stone, apparently a 
milliarium, was found with an inscription to Florianus, the brother 
of the emperor Tacitus, who reigned not more than two or three 
months, in ad. 276. It is imperfect, but appears to read as 
follows : — 

imp caes To the emperor Caesar 

M. annio Marcus Annius 

floriano Florianus, 

p. f. invicto the pious and faithful, unconquered, 

avg. the Augustus. 

M. P. ii Two miles. 



chap, xil] INSCRIPTIONS TO THE EMPERORS. 355 

An inscription found at Ancaster (Causennce), commemorates 
the emperor Constantine the Great (308 — 337) : — 

imp c To the emperor Caesar 

PL val Flavius Valerius 

Constantino Constantinus, 

p p inv the pious and faithful, unconquered, 

avg the Augustus. 

divi of the deified 

constanti Constantius, 

pii avg the pious, the Augustus, 

FiLio the son. 

A milestone found in Cumberland was dedicated to Flavius 
Julius Crispus, a son of Constantine the Great, and therefore 
belonged to the earlier part of the fourth century. One found 
near Old Carlisle was dedicated to the emperor Marcus Julius 
Philippus, and is fixed by the mention of his consulship to the 
year 247. Another, found near the Roman road at Gretabridge, 
in Yorkshire, was dedicated to the emperors G alius and Volusianus, 
in the year 252. 

At Bittern, in Hampshire (Clausentum), no less than six stones 
have been found with inscriptions to various emperors. Three of 
these are dedicated to Gordian the Younger, to Gallus and 
Volusianus, and to Aurelian. The other three are all dedicated 
to Tetricus, and are particularly interesting as being the only 
inscriptions yet found in Britain to any of the local usurpers, with 
the exception of one to Victorinus, found near Neath, in Wales. 
It is remarkable that we have no such memorial now remaining of 
Carausius or Allectus, although they reigned during ten years, 
and their numerous coinage proves that they were not neglectful of 
commemorating themselves. The want of inscriptions with their 
names can only be explained by the great care which was probably 
taken to destroy or erase them, after the island was restored to 
its dependence on Borne. There are several instances among the 
inscriptions found in Britain of the erasure of the name of an 
emperor by his successor or rival. An interesting inscription 
found at Hexham had contained the name of Severus and his two 
sons, but that of Geta had been subsequently and carefully 
erased, no doubt after that prince had been murdered by his 
brother, Caracalla. An inscribed slab was discovered some 
years ago at Chesters, in Northumberland (Cilurnum), of which a 



356 



THE ROMANS. 



[chap. XII. 



representation is given in the accompanying cut, and on which 
also were clearly traced some intentional erasures. The inscription 




Inscription at Chesters (Cilumum). 

may be given, by comparing and supplying from similar con- 
temporary inscriptions, as follows : — 

imp caes Marc avrel . . . 

avg pont max 

TRIB p cos . . pp divi Antonini fil 

DIVI SEVER NEP 

cesar imper ....... duplares 

alae ii. astorvm templvm vetvstat conlapsum restitu- 
ervnt per marivm VALERiAnum leg. avg. pr pr 

INSTANTE SEPTIMIO NILO PRAE . . . 

DEDICATVM III KAL NOVEM GRATO ET SELEUCO COSS. 

which may be translated : — To the emperor Marcus Aurelius 

Augustus Pontifex Maximus, with the tribunitian power, 

fourth time consul, father of his country, son of divine Antoninus, 

grandson of divine Severus, to Caesar our emperor the 

duplares of the second wing of Asturians restored this temple, 
through age dilapidated, by command of Marius Valerianus, legate 
of the Augustus and propraetor, under the superintendence of 
Septimius Nilus the Prsefect. It was dedicated on the third 
kalends of November (the 30th of October), Gratus and Seleucus 
being consuls. 



chap, xil] VALUE OF INSCRIPTIONS. 357 

Mr. Bruce, from whose work on the Roman wall I take this 
inscription, makes the following illustrative remarks, which deserve 
to be impressed on the minds of all students of our early anti- 
quities. "Hutton," he observes, "who has done such good 
service to the wall, underrated the value of inscriptions. ' When 
the antiquary,' says he, ' has laboured through a parcel of 
miserable letters, what is he the wiser?' Let this fractured 
and defaced stone answer the question. 1. This dedication was 
made by soldiers of the second wing of the Astures; — we 
thus learn the name of the people who garrisoned the fort, and 
by a reference to the Notitia, ascertain with certainty that this 
was Cilurnum. 2. We acquire the fact that a temple, which 
through age had become dilapidated, was restored; — learning 
thereby, not only the attention which the Romans paid to what 
they conceived to be religious duties, but their long occupation of 
this spot. It has been already observed, that some of the pillars 
of the hypocaust have been portions of a prior building ; — the 
ruin and inscription thus corroborate each other. 3. The date of 
the dedication is given ; the third of the kalends of November 
falls upon the thirtieth of October, and the year which Gratus 
and Seleucus were consuls corresponds to a.d. 221 ; — the data on 
which antiquaries found their conclusions are not always so vague 
as some imagine. 4. Even the erasures are instructive. By a 
reference to the date, we find that Heliogabalus was reigning at 
the time of the dedication of the temple ; we find that what 
remain of the names and titles on the stone apply to him ; he, 
consequently, is the emperor referred to. The year following he 
was slain by his own soldiers, his body dragged through the 
streets, and cast into the Tiber. The soldiers in Britain seem to 
have sympathised with their companions at Rome, and to have 
erased tbe name of the fallen emperor from the dedicatory slab. 
Human nature is the same in every age. How often have we, in 
modern times, seen a name cast out with loathing, which yesterday 
received the incense of a world's flattery ! " * 

This inscription also furnishes us with a name of a propraetor 
or governor of Roman Britain, who is not mentioned elsewhere. 
Other inscriptions have added to our list of propraetors, or 

* It may be observed that tbis inscription affords a remarkably good example of 
the combining of letters together, so common in Roman inscriptions, especially of 
this age. 



358 THE ROMANS. [chap. xii. 

confirmed the names of those who are mentioned in history. 
Thus :— 

Aulus Plautius, the first propraetor, who came over under the 
emperor Claudius, is mentioned in an inscription found in Italy, 
and published by Gruter. 

Licinius Priscus, who governed Britain under Hadrian, is com- 
memorated in an inscription found at Bewcastle, in Cumberland, 
as well as on a monument found at Borne. 

Lollius Urbicus, the celebrated propraetor of Antoninus Pius, 
is mentioned in an inscription found in Scotland. 

Platorius Nepos is mentioned as propraetor under Hadrian in 
inscriptions found at more than one place along the line of the 
Northumbrian wall. 

C. Valerius Pansa occurs as holding the same office under Trajan, 
in an inscription found at Novarra, in Italy, published by Muratori. 

Quintus Calpurnius is mentioned in an inscription found in 
Northumberland, believed to be of the age of Commodus. 

Virius Lupus, the propraetor of the emperor Severus, occurs on 
an inscription found at Ilkey, in Yorkshire {Olicana), and another 
found at Bowes (Lavatrce). 

Claudius Xenophon, whose date is doubtful, is mentioned in an 
inscription found at Little Chesters, in Northumberland. 

Marius Valerianus, under Heliogabalus, is mentioned in the 
inscription given above. 

Maecilius Fuscus, propraetor under Gordian, occurs in an 
inscription at Lanchester, in Durham 

Gnaeus Lucilianus, propraetor under the same emperor, occurs 
in another inscription found at the same place. 

Claudius Paulinus, propraetor, is mentioned in an inscription 
found near Caen, in Normandy, of the date of a.d. 240. 

Nonnius Philippus, propraetor also under Gordian, is mentioned 
in an inscription found at Old Penrith, in Cumberland, and in 
another at Old Carlisle, of the date 242. 

As far as we can perceive, the military, civil, and fiscal depart- 
ments of the administration of Britain were united, at first, in 
the' office of the propraetor ; but, as we have seen above, after 
Constantine had divided the empire into four governments, the 
different departments of administration in this island were each 
placed separately under the praefect of the west in Gaul. His vicar 
(vicarius) had the management of the civil government of the 



chap, xil] MUNICIPAL TOWNS. 359 

island. But there was another, and an independent jurisdiction, 
that of the towns, which it is of the utmost importance we should 
not overlook. The very doubtful treatise attributed to Richard of 
Cirencester, which, however, I believe in this case offers us correct 
information, states that there were in Britain two municipal 
towns (municipia), Verulamium (St. Albans), and Eburacum (York). 
The same authority enumerates nine colonic, Londinium (London), 
Camulodunun (Colchester), Rutupise (Richborough), Aquae Solis 
(Bath), Isca (Caerleon), Deva [Chester), Glevum (Gloucester), 
Lindum (Lincoln), and Camboricum (Cambridge) ; ten cities under 
the Latian law (civitates Latio jure donatce), Durnomagus, con- 
sidered to be another name for DurobrivaB (Castor), Cataracto 
(Catterick), Cambodunum (Slack), Coccium (Ribchester), Lugu- 
ballium (Carlisle), Ptoroton (Burgh-head), Victoria (Dealgin Ross), 
Theodosia (Dumbarton), Corinium (Cirencester), Sorbiodunum 
(Old Sarum) ; and twelve stipendiary towns, of less consequence,* 
Venta Silurum (Caerwent), Venta Belgarum (Winchester), Venta 
Icenorum (Caistor, near Norwich), Segontium (Caer Segont), 
Maridunum (Caermarthen), Ratse (Leicester), Cantiopolis (Can- 
terbury), Durinum (Dorchester), Isca (Exeter), Bremenium 
(Rochester), Vindonum (in Hampshire), and Durobrivse (Rochester). 
In earlier times the colonics were the cities out of Italy which 
possessed in the most perfect degree the rights of Roman 
citizens, but at a later period the municipia and colonic appear 
to have been nearly identical with each other. The Latian law 
was a modification of the municipal privileges and forms, which it 
is not necessary here to enter upon. The stipendiary towns are 
said to have been distinguished by the payment of their taxes in 
money, instead of giving a certain proportion of the produce of 
the soil. All these towns enjoyed the civitas, or rights of Roman 
citizens ; they consisted of the town and a certain extent of land 
around it, and had a government of their own, republican in form, 
resembling the ancient constitution of Rome, and exempt from all 
control of the imperial officers. As soldiers, they were obliged 
only to defend their own town, and were not liable to serve else- 
where. They possessed, in fact, their own free constitution and 
officers, perhaps differing at times from one another; but, 
speaking generally, the Roman municipium, or town corporation, 

* Deinde xii. stipendiarise minorisque momenti. 



360 THE ROMANS. [chap. xii. 

consisted of the people at large and the curia or governing body. 
The members of the curia were called curiales, decuriones, or 
senators ; the rank was hereditary, the son of a curialis becoming 
a member of the curia by right of birth. Persons who were not 
of senatorial birth might, however, be elected into that body. 
The curiales received various emoluments, and possessed important 
privileges ; they alone had the right of electing the magistrates 
and officers of the municipium. These officers were, first, two 
duumviri, or chief magistrates, who answered to the consuls at 
Rome, and whose authority extended over the civitas, or territory 
surrounding and depending upon the town. Sometimes the 
municipium had only one duumvir. The duumviri were chosen 
from among the curiales, no person not a member of the senatorial 
body being capable of election to that office. They were obliged 
to accept office, if elected ; a curialis refusing to act as duumvir, 
or concealing himself to escape election, was punished by con- 
fiscation of his property. After the duumviri, a certain number 
of officers, termed principales, were elected out of the body of the 
curia, who were the administrators of the municipal affairs, and 
formed the permanent council of the curia. The duumviri were 
in general elected yearly; the principales continued in office 
during fifteen years. Besides these, there were different inferior 
officers, equally elected by the curia. The whole body of the 
citizens — the plebs — elected an important officer, called the 
defensor civitatis, who was not to be a member of the curia, and 
whose duty it was to protect the populace against the senatorial 
body, when the latter acted unjustly or tyrannically ; he was to the 
municipium what the tribune had been in Rome. There were also 
corporations or colleges of the different trades in the Roman muni- 
cipia, who chose their patrons among the senators or curiales. 

At present we have unfortunately few inscriptions found in 
Britain which illustrate the municipal constitution of the towns 
under the Romans, probably because most of those which were 
thus constituted are now covered with modern towns, and the 
others have never been properly explored. The few which have 
been found leave no doubt that the Roman laws in this respect 
were firmly established here. We have already (p. 320) given 
an inscription commemorating a decurion of the colonia of Glevum 
[Gloucester), who died at Aquse Solis (Bath). Another inscription 
(p. 316), mentions a sevir of the colonia of Eburacum (York). 



chap, xil] MUNICIPAL CONSTITUTIONS. 361 

This word is generally understood as belonging to a military 
officer, but it must here refer to a municipal one. Several 
instances occur in which the collegia are mentioned in inscriptions 
in Britain. The collegium ligniferorum mentioned in inscriptions 
found at Castle Cary, in Scotland, has been conjectured to be of a 
religious character. A collegium fabrorum is mentioned in a 
celebrated inscription of an early date found at Chichester.* A 
still more celebrated inscription found near Bath, mentions a 
collegium fabric ensium, a guild of smiths, or, as we should say 
now, smiths' company. This inscription relates to a member of 
this college who belonged to the twentieth legion, and is read as 
follows : — 

iylivs vita Julius Vitalis, 

lis fabricies smith of the 

is . leg . xx . v . v . twentieth legion, the valiant 

and victorious, 

stipexdior who served nine years, 

VM ix annor xx lived twenty- 

IX . natione be nine, by nation a Belgian, 

lga ex . collegio by the college 

eabrice . elatv of the smiths carried to burial, 

s . h s e He is placed here. 

Gruter has published an inscription, found on the site of the 
ancient Nomentum, in Italy, which commemorates an individual 
who held the office of censitor (or censor) of the citizens of 
Camulodunum (Colchester) : — 

cn . munativs . M . f . pal Cneius Munatius, 

avrelivs bassvs Aurelius Bassus, 



pr^f . coh . II prsefect of the second cohort 

astvrvm . censitor . civivm of the Asturians, censitor of 

the 

romanorvm . coloniae . victri- Roman citizens of the colonia 

censis victrixf 

quae . est . in . Britannia which is in Britannia 

camolodvni .... at Camulodunum. 

At first the rights of citizenship were given as a mark of honour 
and the reward of merit, chiefly to soldiers, for the Roman 



* I have already given this inscription in a note to p. 29. It will be under- 
stood that, in the inscription which follows, fabriciesis is merely contracted or 
mis-written for fabriciensis. 

+ This epithet applied to the colonial town of Camulodunum, coincides with 
the account of Tacitus that it was placed under the auspices of Victory, whose 
temple served as a refuge to the inhabitants when attacked by the insurgent Britons. 



362 THE ROMANS. [chap. xii. 

municipalities in the provinces were all originally military 
foundations ; but subsequently they were granted more lavishly, 
and almost all the free population of the empire became 
eventually Roman citizens. In earlier times the grants of 
citizenship were duly registered at Rome, and copies of the 
grant, inscribed on plates of copper or bronze, appear to have 
been sent to the place where these new citizens resided. Several 
such plates have been discovered in Britain, as well as in other 
parts of the empire. One of these was dug up in the parish of 
Malpas, in Cheshire, in 1812 ; fragments of two others were 
found in a gravel-pit on Sydenham Common, in Kent, in 1806 ; 
and another was found at Stainington, in Yorkshire, in 1761. 
They are all decrees of the emperor Trajan, in favour of certain 
veterans serving in the troops in Britain, and conferring upon 
them the civitas, or rights of citizenship, and the consequent 
connubivm, or civil rights belonging to legitimate marriage.* 
The inscription found at Malpas, as the most perfect, may be 
given as an example of this important class of inscriptions : — 

IMP . CAESAR . DIVI . NERV^]. F. NERVA . TRAIANVS 
AVGVSTVS . GERMANICVS . DACICVS . PONTIFEX . MAX 
IMVS . TRIBVNIC . POTESTAT VIT IMP IIII COS . V . PP. 
EQVITIBVS . ET . PEDITIBVS . QVT MILITANT . IN ALIS 
QVATVOR . ET . COHORTIBVS . DECEM . ET . VNA . QVAE . AP 
PELLANTVR . I . THRACVM . ET . I . PANNONIORVM . TAM 
PIANA . ET . II . GALLORVM SEBOSIANA . ET . I . HISPA 
NORVM VETTONVM . C . R . ET . I . HISPANORVM . ET . I 
VALCIONVM . MILLIARIA . ET . I . ALPINORVM . ET . I . 
MORINORVM . ET .1 . CVGERNORVM . ET . I . BAETASI 
ORVM . ET . I . TVNGRORVM . MILLIARIA . ET . II . THRA 
CVM . ET . Ill . BRACAR . AVGVSTANORM . ET . IIII. 
LINGONVM . ET . IIII . DELMATARVM . ET . SVNT 
IN BRITANNIA SUB . I . NERATIO MARCELLO 
QVI QVINA ET VICE N A PLURAVE STIPENDIA 
MERVERVNT . QVORVM . NOMINA . SVBSCRIPTA 
SVNT IPSIS LIBERIS POSTERISQVE EORVM . CIVITA 
TEM DEDIT ET CONVBIVM . CVM . VXORIBVS . QVAS . 
TVNC HABVISSENT . CVM . EST . CIVITAS . IIS . DATA 
AVT . SI . QVI . COELIBES . ESSENT . CVM . IIS QVAS 
POSTEA . DVXISSENT . DVMTAXAT . SINGVLI . SIN 
GVLAS . AD XIII K FEBR 
M . LABERIO MAXIMO II 



* The Romans termed a discharge from military service, missio ; and these 
inscribed plates, as honourable discharges, are called by antiquarians tabula honestce 
missionis. Those found at Malpas and Sydenham were published by Samuel 
Lysons ; the other is given in Gough's " Camden, 1 ' edition of 1806. 



chap, xii.] TABULA HONESTY MISSIONIS. 363 

Q GLITIO ATILIO AGRICOLA II CO 

ALAE . I . PANNONIORVM . TAMPIANAE . CVI PRAEEST 

C VALERIVS CELSVS . DECVRIONI 

REBVRRO SEVERI . F . HISPAN 

DESCRIPTVM . ET . RECOGNITVM . EX TABVLA . AENEA 

QVAE . FIXA . EST . ROMAE . IN MVRO . POST . TEMPLVM 

DIVI AVGVSTI AD MINERVAM . 

Q . POMPEI HOMERI 

C . PAPI EVSEBETIS 

T . FLAVI SECVNDI 

P . CAVLI V IT ALTS 

C . VETTIENI MODESTI 

P . ATINI HEDO^ICI 

TI. CLAVDI MENANDRI 

The date of this record is fixed by its internal evidence to the 
20th day of January a.d. 103. The other similar monuments 
found in Britain are all of the same year. The example given 
above may be translated thus : — The emperor Caesar, deified 
Nerva's son, Nerva Trajanus Augustus, the German, the Dacian, 
Pontifex Maximus, invested with the tribunitian power the seventh 
time, emperor the fourth year, consul the fifth time, father of his 
country, to the cavalry and infantry who serve in the four alse and 
eleven cohorts, which are called the first of the Thracians, and the 
first of Pannonians termed the Tampian, and the second of Gauls 
termed the Sebosian, and the first of Spanish Vettones, Roman 
citizens, and the first of Spaniards, and the first of Valciones, a 
milliary one, and the first of Alpini, and the first of Morini, and 
the first of Cugerni, and the first of Baetasii, and the first of 
Tungrians, a milliary one, and the second of Thracians, and the 
third of Braccae x\ugustani, and the fourth of Lingones, and the 
fourth of Dalmatians, and they are in Britain under Julius 
Neratius Marcellus, who have served twenty-five or more years, 
whose names are written below, to themselves, their children, and 
posterity, has given civitas and connubium (the rights of citizen- 
ship and marriage) with their wives, whom they might then have 
when citizenship was given to them, or if any of them were 
unmarried, with those whom they might afterwards take, that is 
to say, each with each. On the 13th kalends of February. To 
M. Laberius Maximus twice, and Q. Glitius Atilius Agricola twice 
consuls, to the first ala of the Pannonians, termed the Tampian, 
which is commanded by C. Valerius Celsus, to the decurion 
Reburrus, son of Severus, the Spaniard. Copied and revised 
from the tablet of brass which is fixed at Rome on the wall behind 



364 THE ROMANS. [chap. xii. 

the temple of divine Augustus near that of Minerva. Quintus 
Pompeius Homerus, Caius Papius Eusebes, Titus Flavius 
Secundus, Publius Caulus Vitalis, Caius Vettienus Modestus, 
Publius Atinius Hedonicus, and Titus Claudius Menander. 

We have no traces of a Roman mint in Britain until the reign 
of Dioclesian and Maximian, on the exergue or vacant space on 
the reverse of some of whose coins we find the letters lon and 
ml, which numismatists seem agreed in interpreting Londinium, 
and moneta Londinensis, and in considering as an indication of 
the place at which they were minted. It is, however, far from 
certain that Roman money was not coined in the island before it 
was thought necessary to indicate the circumstance by such letters, 
and we cannot but be astonished at the extraordinary activity of 
the Eoman mint in Britain during the usurpation of Carausius 
and Allectus. The great mass of their coins appear to have been 
struck in Britain. Those of Carausius bear in the exergues 
various combinations of letters, which, there can be little doubt, 
refer to different Roman towns in this island where they were 
minted. One of the more common forms is ml, which is inter- 
preted moneta Londinensis, money of Londinium (London). In 
other examples there is simply an l for Londinium. Another 
common form is r s, which is believed to signify Rutupiis signata 
(moneta), money coined at Rutupiae (Richborough). The most 
common form of all is rsr, which is also supposed to mean 
money struck at Richborough, though the meaning of the second 
r has not been satisfactorily explained. The letters mrs, found 
on some coins of Carausius, may also signify moneta Rutupiis 
signata. Two different types of the same usurper have on the 
exergue the letters rsp, which are perhaps the initials of Rutupiis 
signata pecunia. The letter c is found singly on a considerable 
number of different types of the coinage of Carausius, and is believed 
to refer to Clausentum (Bittern), one of the great naval stations on 
the southern coast of Britain ; and other similar inscriptions, such 
as mc, sc, msc, spc, are believed to refer to the same place, and to 
admit of the interpretations moneta Clausenti, signata Clausenti, 
moneta signata Clausenti, and signata pecunia Clausenti. The 
letters rsa, found in the exergue of at least one type, may refer to 
Rutupiae. Other types exhibit the letters ms, or msp, or simply m, 
which may possibly refer to Magna (Kenchester),Y?here a remarkable 
quantity of the money of Carausius is constantly found. The 



chap, xil] EOMAN MINT MARKS. 365 

letters may thus be interpreted, Magnis signata, Magnis signata 
pecania, or giving merely the name of the place, Magnis. Many 
examples have numerals added to the name of the place, but their 
meaning is very doubtful. Thus we have many types of coins of 
Carausius bearing on the exergue the letters mlxxi, which seems 
to stand for moneta Londinii xxi ; a combination of letters equally 
common is cxxi, which may stand for Clausenti xxi; and we 
have some which are marked simply with the numerals xxi. We 
have on other examples mlx {moneta Londinii x), and x by itself ; 
lvii (Londini vii) ; and the numerals xx and xxxx, without any 
indication of the name of the place. On the coinage of Allectus 
we find in the exergues the letters ml (moneta Londinensis), which 
is the most common ; msl (moneta signata Londinii) ; c (Clausenti), 
which is also very common ; m (Magnis ?) ; cl, ql, and qc, which 
have not been explained. A few of the coins of Constantine 
the Great have in the exergue p lon (pecunia Londinensis), but 
they are far more common with the continental mint-marks. The 
inscription p lon is also found on the coins of Constan tine's 
empress Fausta, of his sons Crispus and Constantine, and of his 
daughter-in-law (as it is supposed) Helena ; but after Allectus 
there are no indications of other towns in Britain in which money 
was minted ; and even the simple p lon disappears after the 
reigns of the sons of Constantine. There may, however, have 
still remained a local mint, which, as far as is yet known, has 
left no distinguishing mark on its coinage.* 

It is to be remarked that the insular coins of Carausius are not 
in general inferior in purity of metal and in execution to the con- 
temporary coinage of the continent. But it is no less true that 
among the Roman money found in this country we find a great 
mass of debased or adulterated coinage, and, which is still more 
curious, that very extensive manufactures of spurious money 
have been traced. A few years ago, during the excavations for 
laying the foundations of King William-street, in the city of 
London, a considerable quantity of coins made of iron plated with 
silver, intended to pass as silver, w r ere found packed up in tiers, as 
they had been imported into Britain, probably to pay the troops. 
The latest of them were of the emperor Claudius, which was perhaps 

* It must be remarked that many of the foregoing explanations are conjectural, 
and they may perhaps admit of other interpretations. The c 9 for instance, may 
stand for Camulodimum, instead of Clausentum. 



366 



THE ROMANS. 



[chap. XII. 



the time when they were brought over hither. Most of these coins 
are in the cabinet of Mr. Eoach Smith, who also possesses a number 
of Roman forged coins cast in lead, found chiefly in the Thames. 
Amongst the numerous coins found at Maryport, in Cumberland, 
a great quantity are forged denarii of Trajan and Hadrian, mostly, 
like those in Mr. Smith's museum, 'cast in lead. It has been 
remarked that " genuine coin must have been exceedingly scarce 
among the soldiers of this camp, and their credulity very great, to 
allow of the circulation of such base imitations." 

Extensive remains of manufactures of spurious money under 
the Romans have been found in several places in this island, but 
more especially at Lingwell Gate, near Wakefield, in Yorkshire, 
at Edington, in Somersetshire, at Ruyton, in Shropshire, and at 
Castor, in Northamptonshire. The last two places were the sites 
of well-known Roman towns, Rutunium and Durobrivae. The 
manner of casting the coins was a very simple process. A fine 
clay, found on the locality, was formed 
into small round tablets, of uniform 
size and thickness. A coin of one 
of the emperors was pressed between 
each two tablets, so as to leave a 
perfect impression, and the latter were 
then arranged upon one another in 
files or columns, the upper and lower 
tablets being impressed only on one 
side. A notch was broken into the 
side all the way down, which admitted 
the metal into each impression. Two, 
or three, of these columns, as the case 
might be, were placed side by side, 
with the side notches joined to- 
gether, and these were enclosed in a 
clay case, with a hole at the top, 
through which the melted metal ran 
down the opening left by the notches, 
by which it entered into all the 
impressions. The arrangement, as 
observed in the moulds found at 
Lingwell Gate, is exhibited in our woodcut, where the upper 
figure represents the faces of three impressed tablets as they 




Moulds for Coining. 



chap, xil] MANUFACTURE OF FORGED MONEY. 367 

were joined together in the columns. It was only necessary 
that care should be taken to place the tablets on one another, 
so that the reverse might correspond with the head belonging to 
it. Their misplacement would produce those wrong reverses 
which are sometimes found among ancient Roman coins, and which 
have often puzzled the numismatist. 

From the number of these moulds which are found on the 
sites where they occur, we might imagine that after being used two 
or three times, they were thrown aside as waste, and new ones 
formed. In an account of those found at Edington, in Somerset- 
shire, printed in the fourteenth volume of the " Archseologia," the 
writer informs us that " the field in which they were found is a 
meadow that bears no marks of ever having been ploughed ; which 
accounts for the moulds remaining so long undiscovered. It is 
situated at the north edge of Polclen Hill, at about a quarter of a 
mile to the north of the village of Chilton. We were led to this 
particular spot by a person who had some time before cut through 
a bed of them in digging a drain. They were lying promis- 
cuously scattered over a space about four feet square, and from six 
inches to a foot below the surface of the ground." He adds that 
in the space of an hour they picked up several hundred moulds. 
They are found also scattered about very plentifully at Lingwell. 
In some instances pieces of metal have been found, and at 
Lingwell Gate an earthen crucible for melting it was met with. 
Some moulds have even been found to contain the forged coins as 
the metal had been poured in, which had never been taken out. 

Moulds of the same kind have been found in France, especially 
in Lyons, and at Damery, near Epernay, in the department of 
the Marne. This latter place occupied the site of a Roman 
station. Excavations made there in the winter of 1829 brought 
to light, under a heap of burnt matter, the remains of extensive 
buildings which had evidently been destroyed by fire, and 
appeared to have consisted of baths and a moneyer's workshop. 
In some of the apartments were found vases full of coins. The 
first contained at least two thousand pieces of base silver, more 
than fifteen hundred of which bore the head of Postumus ; the 
remainder presenting the series which is generally found from the 
elder Philip down to that reign. The fabric was bad, and the 
metal much alloyed. Another vase contained a silver coin of 
Antoninus ; five small brass of the money of Treves, with the 



THE ROMANS. [chap. xn. 



types of Rome and Constantinople ; a hundred other small brass 
of the money of Treves, Lyons, Aries, Aquileia, and other towns, 
with the heads of Constans and Constantius, sons of Constantine ; 
and nearly four thousand pieces in small brass of the fourth size, all 
of the same emperors, Constans and Constantius. All these 
coins were so fresh, that it seemed evident they had been made 
in the place where they were found, and that they had never been 
in circulation. This circumstance was soon explained by the 
discovery in an adjoining room of a manufactory of money, which, 
at the time the buildings were destroyed, must have been in full 
activity. " There, under a heap of ashes and tiles, were found 
together, shears and the remains of other instruments suitable for 
the making of money ; and several collections of moulds of baked 
earth, still containing the pieces which had been cast in them, and 
the ingot formed by the superfluous metal. These moulds were 
moulded from the money which they were intended to reproduce, 
by pressing the models between discs of worked clay of larger 
diameter, in order to form ledges, and were then placed one upon 
another, so that, with the exception of the first and last, they 
received on the two faces the stamp of the obverse and the reverse 
of a piece. The cavities and the impressions being obtained by 
this process, both easily and accurately, the discs composing the 
moulds were notched, in order to form a passage for the fused 
metal ; they were then hardened in the fire, and replaced on one 
another, notch over notch, in the same order as when moulded." 

It has been a question rather learnedly and warmly discussed, 
whether these workshops were those of private forgers, or whether 
they were establishments under the direction of the imperial 
government. The latter supposition seems to be authorised by 
the fact that they are found in large towns, and apparently, in 
some instances, in public buildings. The moulds found at 
Polden Hill, in Somersetshire, were of Severus and his wife Julia, 
of Caracalla, Geta, Macrinus, Elagabalus, Alexander Severus, 
Maximinus, Maximus, Plautilla, Julia Paula, and Julia Mammsea. 
These, compared with other circumstances, seem to show that the 
forgeries were carried on after the reign of Severus, and that it 
was probably one scheme of the fiscal administration to raise 
money by the issue of debased coin, which, to protect the 
reigning emperor from odium, was cast from moulds of the coins 
of previous emperors. Of course, it does not follow necessarily 



chap, xil] COIN'S RELATING TO BRITAIN. 369 

that some of the moulds which have been found in other places 
may not have belonged to private forgers, who thus enriched 
themselves by defrauding the public. 

Mr. Akerman has published a very useful volume under the 
title of " Coins of the Romans relating to Britain." The series 
of Roman coins which come under this denomination have a 
peculiar interest connected with the history of our island. From 
the moment when Claudius set his foot on our shores, there was 
a regular series of imperial coins commemorative of victories in 
Britain by the emperors or by their military commanders. Those 
of Claudius, bearing on the reverse a triumphal arch with the 
inscription de britann (over the Britons), are well known. The 
expedition of the emperor Hadrian was commemorated by a coin 
in large brass, struck in the year 121, on the reverse of which is 
the inscription, adventvs avg britanniae (the advent of the 
Augustus to Britain). The same emperor commemorated his 
exploits by another coin, bearing on the reverse a figure of a 
female seated on a rock, holding a spear on her arm, with a 
shield resting by her side, and the inscription Britannia. There 
are several different coins of Hadrian with this device, from 
which they are usually known as the Britannia types, and similar 
coins were struck under Antoninus Pius ; but in the latter the 
figure is more frequently a male than a female. It is from these 
Roman coins that the figure of Britannia was taken for our 
modern English mintage. Coins of Severus bear the inscription 
victoriae britannicae, to commemorate the expeditions of that 
emperor against the Caledonians. Similar inscriptions appear on 
those of his sons, Caracalla and Geta. The mintage of the 
usurpers Carausius and Allectus furnished the most important 
monuments of the history of Britain during that period ; while 
those of their successors are chiefly connected with our island by 
the marks of the London mint. 

The great quantities of Roman coins which are found in this 
island, and which have been continually found for many ages, 
prove that there was no want of money in Roman Britain. They 
are usually found hoarded up in earthen vessels, each containing 
sometimes several thousand pieces. These had, no doubt, been 
concealed by the original proprietors, who were, by some 
accident or other, prevented from taking them from their hiding- 
places. The great numbers of pots of Roman money found in 



370 THE ROMANS. [chap. xn. 

almost every part of Britain, show that this was the ordinary 
manner of storing up money which was not in circulation. It was no 
doubt buried in the ground within the limits of the residence of 
its proprietor, or in some spot where it was not likely to be 
intruded upon. Large urns of this kind are sometimes turned up 
by the ploughshare, and thus made to display their contents to 
the wondering eyes of the modern husbandman. Eoman urns 
filled with coins have been found, in some instances — chiefly in 
the mining districts — concealed in crevices of rocks. The re- 
ceptacle of the treasure was not always, however, an earthenware 
vessel. In the year J 837, a quantity of gold and silver coins of 
Eoman emperors, from Nero to Hadrian, was found in a bronze 
vessel, formed like a shallow basket, and covered with a lid, con- 
cealed in the crevice of a rock at Thorngrafton, near Hexham, in 
Northumberland. Several instances have also occurred, where 
the coins had been placed in receptacles of a much more singular 
description. At Cirencester, in the time of Leland (under 
Henry VIIL), a quantity of Roman silver coin was found con- 
cealed in the shank bone of a horse, which was closed at the end 
with a peg ; * and ten British gold coins were found by a boy 
tending sheep, a few years ago near High Wycombe, in Buck- 
inghamshire, in a hollow flint. A still more remarkable circum- 
stance is the manner in which coins are spread over almost all 
Roman sites. In excavating a town, or a villa, we find them 
scattered in the houses and courts, about the streets, and over the 
fields around. In the partial excavations at Lymne, where few of 
the usual articles of Roman antiquity were found, coins occurred 
everywhere. In the ploughed land on the hill round the walls of 
Richborough, one cannot walk long without picking up a Roman 
coin : and on many other long-deserted sites there is scarcely 
a cottager in the neighbourhood who has not a collection of 
coins, which he has picked up in his garden, or when at work in 
the adjoining fields. Any one would imagine that the Romans in 
Britain amused themselves with throwing their money away ; and 
I am not aware that any probable explanation of this circumstance 
has yet been given.f The coins found thus scattered about are 

* " By the town nostris temporibus was found a broken shank bone of a horse, 
the mouth closed with a pegge, the which was taken owt, a shepard founde yt 
fillid nummis argenteis" — Leland 's Itin., vol. v., p. 61. 

+ Great quantities of Roman coins have been brought up from the bed of the 
river Thames at London by dredgers. 



chap, xil] PKOPORTIONAL NUMBERS OF ROMAN COINS. 371 

generally, as might be expected, in much worse condition than 
those which are found in hoards. 

The mass of the Roman coins found in Britain are of very 
common types, and of small intrinsic value; but a few rarer 
specimens are generally found even in small hoards, and now and 
then an unique or nearly unique example occurs. This is more 
frequently the case with the coins of Carausius. Coins are found 
of all periods, from the consular series to the time when the 
Roman legions abandoned the island, and in collections of any 
extent, in whatever part of the island they are made, the pro- 
portional quantities of the coins of the different emperors are 
generally much the same. There are some local exceptions to 
this rule, more especially with regard to the coinage of Carausius 
and Allectus, which are found to predominate in one or two places, 
which were no doubt chief stations of their troops. More 
than eleven hundred Roman coins found of late years at Rich- 
borough, and described by Mr. Roach Smith, presented the fol- 
lowing proportional numbers for each emperor or empress : — 



British 1 

Consular . . . . . 3 
Augustus (b.c. 27 — a.d. 14) . 7 
Agrippa (B.C. 9 — a.d. 30) . . 1 
Tiberius (a.d. 14—37) . . 2 
Antonia (wife of Drusus senior) 1 
Caligula (a.d. 37—41) . . 2 
Claudius (a.d. 41—54) . . 15 

Nero (a.d. 50—68) . . .11 
Vespasian (a.d. 69—79) . . 13 
Titus (a.d. 69—81) ... 1 
Bomitian (a.d. 69—96) . . 10 
Nerva (a.d. 96—98) . . 1 

Trajan (a.d. 98—117) . . . 7 
Hadrian (a.d. 117—138) . . 5 
Sabina (wife of Hadrian) . . 1 
^Elius Csesar (a.d. 136—138) . 2 
Antoninus Pius (a.d. 1 38—161) 5 
Faustina the Elder (wife of 

Antoninus) .... 3 
Marc. Aurelius (a.d. 161 — 180) 4 
Faustina the Younger (wife of 

M. Aurelius) . . .5 

Lucius Verus (a.d. 161—169) . 2 
Lucilla (wife of Lucius Verus) 1 
Commodus (a.d. 166—192) . 2 

105 



Brought forward 
Severus (a.d. 197—211) . . . 
Julia Domna (wife of Severus) . 
Caracalla (a. d. 196—217) . . 
Julia Msesa (sister of Julia 

Domna) ..... 
Severus Alexander (a.d. 221 — 

235) . 

Gordianus (a.d. 238—244) 
Philippus (a.d. 244—249) , 
Valerianus (a.d. 254 — 260) 
Valerianus junior 
Gallienus (a.d. 253—268) 
Salonina (wife of Gallienus) 
Postumus (a.d. 260—267) 
Victorinus (a.d. 265—267) , 
Marius (a.d. 267) . 
Tetricus (a.d. 267—272) 



105 
5 
3 
3 



Claudius Gothicus (a.d. 268—270) 15 



-275) 



Quintillus (a.d. 270) 
Aurelianus (a.d. 270- 
Tacitus (a.d. 275) 
Florianus (a.d. 276) 
Probus (a.d. 276—282) 
Carinus (a.d. 282—285) . 
Numerianus (a.d. 282—284) 



b b 2 



2 

. 4 

. 5 

. 1 

. 7 

. 1 

. 2 

236 



872 



THE EOMANS. 



[chap. xn. 



Brought forward . 

Diocletianus (a.d. 284—313) . 

Maximianus (a.d. 286 — 310) . 

Carausius (a.d. 287—293) . . 

Allectus (a.d. 293—296) 

Constantius I. (a.d. 293—306) 

Helena (wife of Constantius) . 

Theodora (second wife of Con- 
stantius) .... 

Galerius Maximianus (a.d. 292 
—311) 

Maxentius (a. d. 306—312) . 

Romulus (son of Maxentius) . 

Licinius (a.d. 307—324) . . 

Licinius junior 

Constantine the Great (a.d. 
306—337) . . 

Fausta (wife of Constantine) . 

Crispus (a.d. 317—326) . 

Delmatius (nephew of Con- 
stantine) . . . . 

Constantine II. (a.d.317— 340) 



236 

8 

16 

94 

45 

4 



13 

1 
2 
1 
12 
1 

149 

2 
18 



Brought forward . . . 709 

Constans (a.d. 333—350) . . 77 

Constantius II. (a.d. 323 —361) . 42 
UrbsBoma . . . .52 

Constantinopolis . . . . 60 

Magnentius (a.d. 350 — 353) . 21 

Decentius (a.d. 351—353) . . 4 

Julianus II. (a.d. 355—363) . 7 

Helena (wife of Julian) . . 1 

Jovianus (a.d. 363—364) . . 1 

Valentinianus (a.d. 364—375) . 22 

Valens (a.d. 364—378) . . . 39 

Gratianus (a.d. 375—383) . . 49 

Theodosius (a.d. 379—395) . . 14 
Magnus Maximus (a.d. 383 — 

388) . ... 6 

Victor (son of Maximus) . . 3 

Eugenius (a.d. 392—395) . . 1 

Arcadius (a.d. 383—408) . . 27 

Honorius (a.d. 393—423) . . 8 

Constantine III. (a.d. 407) . . 1 

Total . . . 1144 



709 1 



Of these Richborough coins, seven (including the British coin) 
are of gold, fifty-six of silver, fifteen of billon or debased silver, 
and the rest of brass. The coins of billon, like most of the 
debased silver, belong to the immediate successors of Severus. 
Silver coins are often found in much larger proportions to the 
others ; and the gold coins are too often carried away separately, on 
account of their value, and they have thus frequently found their 
way direct to the melting-pot. Among two hundred and sixty- 
eight Roman coins found at Caerleon, and described in Mr. Lee's 
work on that ancient city, there were two of gold, forty-four of 
silver, eleven plated, and three of billon or debased metal. These 
coins belonged to the different emperors in the following 
proportions : 



Claudius 
Nero . 
Vespasian 
Titus . 
Domitian 
Nerva 
Trajan . 
Hadrian 
Antoninus Pius 



1 
1 

13 
1 
5 
2 

12 
9 

11 

55 



Brought forward 
Faustina, the elder . 
Marcus Aurelius 
Faustina the younger . 
Lucius Verus . 
Lucilla 
Mammsea 
Julia Sosemias . 
Commodus 



55 
3 
3 
1 
1 
2 
1 
2 
3 

71 



chap, xil] PROPORTIONAL NUMBERS OF ROMAN COINS. 373 



Brought forward 
Severus 

Julia .... 
Caracalla . 

Geta .... 
Julia Msesa 
Macrinus 

Severus Alexander 
Elagabalus (Heliogabalus) 
Gordiauus . 
Philippus 
Valerianus 
Gallienus 
Salonina 
Postumus 
Victorinus . 
TheTetrici . 
Claudius Gothicus 
Probus .... 
Maximianus 



. 71 

. 11 
. 2 
. 7 
. 3 
. 1 
. 1 
. 1 
. 1 
. 3 
. 2 
. 1 
. 1 
. 2 
. 2 
. 4 
. 7 
. 7 
. 2 
. 5 

134 



Brought forward 


134 


Carausius 


. 21 


Allectus 


. 4 


Constantius . 


. 1 


Helena 


. 1 


Galerius Maximianus 


. 2 


Licinius 


. 4 


Constantine the Great . 


. 28 


Fausta 


. 1 


Crispus .... 


. 4 


Constantine II. . 


. 8 


Constans 


. 13 


Constantius II. . 


. 6 


UrbsRoma 


. 13 


Constantinopolis 


. 5 


Magnentius . 


. 12 


Decentius . 


. 1 


Valens .... 


. 7 


Gratianus . 


. 2 


Arcadius 


. 1 



Total . 



. 268 



374 THE ROMANS. [chap. xm. 



CHAPTER XIII. 

Declining State of the Roman Empire after the age of Julian — Theodosius sent 
to Britain — Revolt and Career of Maximus — Stilicho — Marcus and Gratian 
Revolt in Britain — The Usurper Constantine — Honorius — Britain independent 
of the Empire and harassed by the Northern Barbarians — The Britons 
receive assistance from Rome — The last Roman Legion withdrawn — The 
Angles and Saxons come in — The Angles settle in Northumbria — The Jutes 
in Kent — Hengest and Horsa — iElla in Sussex — Cerdic arrives in Hampshire 
— Essex and the Angles — Mission of St. Augustine and Conversion of 
the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity. 

At the period when we have to resume our sketch of the history 
of Britain, the vast empire of the Caesars, harassed on all sides 
by its outward enemies, was approaching fast towards a dissolution. 
It had required all the courage and vigilance of Julian to keep 
the Teutons at bay on the northern frontier, and the Saxons were 
becoming every day more formidable in the western seas. The 
governor or vicar of Britain at the time when Julian ascended the 
imperial throne was an officer named Alypius, who was recalled 
by the emperor, in order to be intrusted with the charge of 
directing the rebuilding of the walls of Jerusalem, which Julian 
had determined to restore from a feeling of hostility to the 
Christians. We know nothing of the state of Britain during 
Julian's reign, but soon after the accession of Jovian it was fear- 
fully harassed by the joint attacks of the Picts, Scots, and 
Attacots from the north, and of the Saxons from the sea. They 
seem to have met with little resistance until the reign of his 
successor Valentinian, who, giving up the empire of the east to 
his brother Valens, employed his own energy in restoring security 
and order to the west. It was in the year 368, as Valentinian 
was on his way from Amiens to Treves, that he received intelli- 
gence from Britain of a new and terrible irruption of the 



chap, xiil] TEOUBLES IN BRITAIN". 375 

barbarians, who bad defeated and slain tbe count of the maritime 
district (tbe Saxon coast), Nectaridus, while tbe duke Fullofaudes 
(no doubt the same officer called in the Notitia duke of Britain), 
had fallen into an ambush. In his first moment of indignation, 
the emperor dispatched Severus, the count of the domestics or 
steward of the household, to take the command in the island ; 
but, on reflection, he recalled this appointment, and substituted 
in his place Jovinus, who instantly sent Provertuides to Britain 
to assemble the troops, that they might be ready on his arrival. 
Further consideration seems to have opened Valentinian's eyes 
still more to the gravity of the crisis, and the appointment was 
changed again, the command of Britain being finally entrusted to 
one of the ablest of the imperial generals, the celebrated Theodosius. 
Theodosius hastened to Boulogne, which was at this time called 
Bononia, and he soon landed at Kutupise with a strong force, 
composed of the Batavii, the Eruli, the Jovii, and the Victores. 
We are told by the historian Ammianus Marcellinus, the brief 
narrator of these events, that the Picts, who at this time were 
divided into two great tribes (the Dicalidones and the Vecturiones), 
had joined with the Scots and the fierce nation of the Attacotti, 
in this invasion, and we can understand its grave character when 
we are assured that at the time of the landing of Theodosius at 
Rutupiae, the enemies were plundering the country around London, 
the name of which had then been changed to Augusta. The 
Roman commander immediately marched against them, and, sub- 
dividing his forces, defeated their numerous predatory bands with 
great slaughter, and deprived them of their booty, a great part of 
which was restored to those from whom it had been taken. The 
citizens of London joyfully opened their gates to their deliverer, 
and he remained there a short time to give repose to his troops, 
and to consider the difficulties with which he had to contend. 
He soon learnt from deserters and captives the character of the 
enemy with which he had to deal, and he came to the conclusion 
that they might be conquered by policy as much as by arms. He 
issued a proclamation offering a pardon to all who would desert 
from their ranks, and " on this promise a great number returned 
to their duty." It is evident from this, that there was an insur- 
rection of the subject population combined with the invasion. 
Theodosius next sent a report on the state of Britain to the 
emperor, and recommended that an officer named Civilis, 



376 THE KOMANS. [chap. xiii. 

distinguished for his energy and honesty, should be sent to him 
as governor of Britain, accompanied by a distinguished military 
commander, duke Dulcitius.* 

After remaining some time at London, to wait the effect of his 
proclamation, and the arrival of Civilis and Dulcitius with 
reinforcements, Theodosius left that city at the head of a brave 
and well-appointed army, and by his rapid and great success soon 
justified the high military character for which he was previously 
known. " He always anticipated the enemy in occupying the 
most important positions, and gave no orders to the common 
soldiers which he was not himself the first to execute. In this way, 
discharging the duties both of an able general and brave soldier, 
he routed the various tribes whose insolence, prompted by security, 
had led them to attack the Roman province, and he re-established 
the cities and fortresses, which had suffered severely by their 
manifold losses, but which in their foundation had been calculated 
for preserving the island in permanent tranquillity." f Among 
the auxiliary troops sent into Britain by the emperor Valentinian, 
and probably at this time, was a body of Germans (numerus 
Alemannorum), with a king or chief (rex) named Fraomarius, who 
received the title and office of tribune. 

The first successes of a commander like Theodosius were 
sufficient to discourage the opponents with whom he had to deal ; 
and he not only cleared the southern districts of their invaders, 
but he recovered from the Picts and Scots the country between 
the walls of Hadrian and Antoninus, which he found in the 
undisturbed possession of the enemy, and to which he now gave 
the name of Valentia, in honour of the emperor. He repaired 
and strengthened the forts and garrisons which protected the 
northern frontier, and the island appears to have been restored 
to a degree of peace and prosperity which it had not enjoyed 
for many years. For this Britain was probably indebted in 
some degree to the indulgence of Valentinian, whose constant 

* Denique edictis propositis impunitateque promissa, desertores ad procinctum 
vocabat, et multos alios per diversa libero commeatu dispersos. Quo monitu ut 
rediere plerique, incentivo percitus, retentusque anxiis curis, Civilem nomine 
recturum Britannias pro prsefectis ad se poposcerat mitti, virum acrioris ingenii, 
sed justi tenacera et recti ; itidemque Dulcitium ducem scientia rei militaris 
insignem. — Ammianus Marcel., lib. xxvii. c. 9. 

+ In integrum restituit civitates et castra, multiplicibus quidem damnis afflicta, 
sed ad quietem temporis longi fundata. — Ammianus Marcel, lib. xxviii., c. 3. 



chap, xiil] THE ARCANI. 377 

study it is said to have been to ease the provinces by relieving 
them of taxes, and protecting their frontiers. 

Indeed, when we consider the brief and imperfect account of 
these events given by the old historian, we become convinced 
that there was something more than a mere invasion of barbarians, 
and that these had been joined, if not called in, by a large portion 
of the population of the Eoman province. We have seen many 
instances of the readiness with which the cities in Britain rose up 
in rebellion against the imperial authority, and it is not impro- 
bable that they looked upon the change which had turned their 
governor into a mere vicar under the government of Gaul as a 
serious diminution of their independence. Perhaps, under the 
new regime, their taxes and services had become more burthen- 
some. It is certain, however, that Ammianus Marcellinus, in 
resuming briefly the character of the emperor Valentinian, blames 
him for an habitual inattention to the complaints of his subjects 
in the distant provinces, and accidentally informs us that it was 
this circumstance which had caused the tumults in Britain.* 
The people of Britain had therefore asked for a redress of 
grievances, and the emperor had turned a deaf ear to their 
complaints. Another incident mentioned by the historian shows 
us that there was intelligence between the insurgents and the 
invaders. There was, we are told, in the province a class of men 
employed who were entitled, according to the text of Ammianus as 
now printed, Areani, but which is supposed to be an error for 
Arcani, secret agents ; for he informs us that their duty was to 
travel as spies among the different peoples on the frontiers of the 
empire, and bring early intelligence of their movements and 
designs. These men, we are told, in Britain, had entered into 
communication with the enemies, and had given them information 
which enabled them to make their invasions with the greater 
security and advantage. The Arcani had become so dangerous, 
that Theodosius found it necessary to deprive them of the power 
of doing further evil, and, as far as we can gather, the office itself 
appears to have been abolished. f 

* In hoc tantum deerrans, quod, quum gregariorum etiam levia puniret errata, 
potiorum ducum fkgitia progredi sinebat in majus, ad querelas in eos motas 
aliquoties obsurdescens ; unde Britannici strepitus et Africanse clades et vastitas 
emersit lllyrici. — Ammianus Marcel., lib.xxx. c. 9. 

+ Ammianus had given a further account of these Arcani, or Areani, in a part 
of his book which is now lost. The manuscript which preserved his history 



378 THE ROMANS. [chap, xiil 

Another occurrence related by the same historian gives us a 
passing glance of the divisions and intrigues which at this time 
reigned in the province of Britain. There was in Britain at this 
time a man named Valentinus, a native of Valeria, in Pannonia, 
notorious for his intrigues and ambition, who had been sent as an 
exile to Britain in expiation of some heavy crime. This practice 
of banishing political offenders to Britain appears to have been, at 
the time of which we are now speaking, very prevalent ; for we learn 
from the same annalist that a citizen of Rome named Frontinus was 
at the time of the revolt just described sent into exile in Britain for 
a similar cause. Men like these no sooner arrived in the island 
than they took an active part in its divisions, and brought the 
talent for political intrigue which had been fostered in Italy to 
act upon the agitation already existing in the distant province. 
Such was the case with Valentinus, who, as the brother-in-law of 
one of the deepest agitators of Borne, the vicar Maximinus 
(described by Ammianus as Me exitialis vicarius), had no doubt 
been well trained for the part he was now acting. As far as 
we can gather from the brief notices of the historian, this 
individual seems, when Theodosius arrived in Britain, to have 
been actively engaged in some ambitious designs, which the 
arrival of that great and upright commander rendered hopeless. 
Theodosius had not been long in Londinium, when he received 
private information that Valentinus was engaged with the other 
exiles in a formidable conspiracy, and that even many of the military 
had been secretly corrupted by his promises. * With the vigour 
which characterised all his actions, Theodosius caused the arch- 
conspirator and his principal accomplices to be seized suddenly, 
at the moment when their designs were on the point of being 
carried into execution, and they were delivered over to duke 
Dulcitius, to receive the punishment due to their crimes ; but, 
aware of the extensive ramifications of the plot in which they had 

through the destructive period which followed the fall of the empire had heen 
much mutilated ; and it happens unfortunately that, as in the case of Tacitus, the 
very hooks which would have given us important information on the history and 
condition of Britain were those which have perished. 

* Quietis impatiens malefica hestia ad res perniciosas consurgebat et novas, in 
Theodosium tumore quodam, quern solum resistere posse nefandis cogitationibus 
advertebat. Multa tamen clam palamque circumspiciens, crescente flatu cupidi- 
tatis immensse exsules sollicitabat et milites, pro temporis captu ausorum illece- 
brosas pollicendo mercedes. 



chap, xiil] REVOLT OF MAXIMUS. 379 

been engaged, and believing tbat it had been sufficiently crushed, 
Theodosius wisely put a stop to all further inquiries, fearing lest 
by prosecuting them he might excite an alarm, which would only 
bring a renewal of the scenes of turbulence and outrage which his 
presence had already in a great measure appeased.* The 
prudence as well as the valour of Theodosius were thus united in 
restoring Britain to peace and tranquillity ; and we are assured 
that when, in 369, he quitted the island, he was accompanied to 
the port where he embarked by crowds of grateful provincials. 

The spirit of discontent and rebellion, which appears to have 
been so widely spread among the inhabitants of the island province, 
was only suppressed by Theodosius to break out a few years after- 
wards in a more alarming form. The emperor Valentinian died 
in the November of the year 375, and left the empire to his two 
sons, Gratian, who had already partaken in its cares, and 
Valentinian, a mere child. Theodosius had already fallen a 
victim to the jealousies of the court, but he had left a son, also 
named Theodosius, to inherit his greatness. The empire of the 
east having been made vacant by the death of Valens, Gratian 
chose the young Theodosius as his successor, in 379 ; he had 
already divided the empire of the west, by placing Italy and the 
countries bordering on the Mediterranean, under his younger 
brother, while he retained for himself the more difficult task of 
governing Gaul, Spain, and Britain. The elevation of Theodosius 
to the imperial dignity was the signal for a general revolt in the 
latter province. There was at this time in Britain a young 
officer, a native of Spain, named Magnus Maximus, who had 
served in the island along with young Theodosius, and who 
was now a great favourite with the troops, although we are not 
informed what command he held. It is said that his jealous 
mind was profoundly wounded at the honours showered upon 
Theodosius, and that he w r as easily induced to join in a con- 
spiracy for wresting the western division of the empire from 
Gratian. In the year 383, the soldiers in Britain, who are 
characterised by the almost contemporary historian as the most 
arrogant and turbulent of all the imperial troops, f rose, it appears, 

* De conjuratis quasstiones agitari prohibuit, ne formidine sparsa per multos, 
reviviscerent provinciarum turbines compositi. 

+ Ofa rwu 'aAXcov andpTcau irKeov avdadtia Kal Bu/jLCf viku>u.$vqvs. — Zosimus, 
lib. iv., c. 35. 



380 THE ROMANS. [chap. xiii. 

unanimously, and proclaimed Maximus their emperor. Maximus 
at once placed himself at the head of the British army, and 
passing over to the continent, landed at the mouth of the Rhine. 
The troops in Germany immediately revolted to his standard, and 
the new emperor marched triumphantly into Treves, which he made 
his capital. 

Of the events which followed, the accounts of different writers 
are very contradictory ; but, according to that which appears to 
be entitled to most credit, Gratian was residing at Paris, without 
any suspicion of the danger which threatened him, when he 
received intelligence of this dangerous revolt. Perceiving that he 
was deserted by the troops in Gaul, whose hostility he had pro- 
voked, and having ascertained that it was in vain to attempt to 
resist the usurper, he fled towards Italy, accompanied by a faithful 
body of cavalry. But treason seemed to beset him on all sides. 
The governor of the province of Lugdunum (Lyons), treacherously 
persuaded him to remain in Gaul, and amused him with deceitful 
stories of armies that were rising up to support his cause, until the 
general of the cavalry of Maximus, the unscrupulous Andragathius, 
arrived with a strong body of troops, to whom Gratian was 
delivered, to be sacrificed immediately by the hand of an assassin. 

The triumph of Maximus was now complete, and having no 
longer any formidable rival to contend with in the west, he 
assumed all the insignia and attributes of empire, conferred the 
rank of Caesar on his son Victor, still a child, and sent an ambas- 
sador to the court of Theodosius, instructed to represent to the 
eastern emperor that he had been compelled by the army to 
assume the purple, to express his grief for the murder of Gratian, 
which he pretended had been done without his knowledge, and 
to offer Theodosius the choice of war or peace. Theodosius, con- 
sidering it prudent to temporise, chose the latter, and it was 
agreed that Maximus should retain Britain, Gaul, and Spain, 
leaving to the young emperor Valentinian the provinces which 
had been assigned to him by his brother. Maximus now took up 
his residence in Treves, where he displayed the cruelty of his dis- 
position in persecuting some Christian heretics, with the object, it 
is said, of conciliating the more orthodox Christians in Italy, that 
they might assist him in his ultimate designs of reducing Italy to 
his obedience. At length, when the moment appeared favourable 
for this enterprise, he began by treacherously obtaining possession 



chap, xiil] FATE OF MAXIMUS. 381 

of the fortresses which guarded the passes of the Alps. This 
was no sooner effected, than the usurper, by a secret and rapid 
march, came unexpectedly with his formidable army before the 
gates of Milan. Yalentinian fled with his mother, the empress 
Justina, and his court, and succeeded in reaching in safety the domi- 
nions of Theodosius ; while Maximus, who had met with no serious 
opposition, entered Aquileia as emperor of the undivided west. 

Theodosius was now roused to resist and revenge this bold 
usurpation, and having despatched a body of foreign auxiliaries 
under Arbogastes, to march along the shores of the Danube, he 
placed himself at the head of another army which marched 
through Pannonia, while a numerous fleet conducted Valentinian 
and his mother back to Italy. Maximus had hitherto succeeded 
by treason and fraud, and not by arms, and he seems to have 
been overcome with the consciousness of the superior military 
talents of the adversary with whom he had now to contend. His 
troops were defeated whenever they attempted to oppose the 
advance of the enemy, and Aquileia itself, in spite of its im- 
pregnable walls, was soon obliged to throw open its gates to 
Theodosius. Maximus was taken, and immediately put to death ; 
and Arbogastes having by this time advanced into Gaul, the 
child Victor was also taken, and fell an innocent victim to the 
ambition of his father. 

The expedition of Maximus has been made by the old historians 
of Britain a fertile source of fable. It is pretended that the island 
was so entirely drained of its population, that it was never again 
able to defend itself against its barbarian invaders ; that the vast 
host of Britons who followed Maximus into Gaul settled in 
Armorica after his defeat, and caused that country to receive the 
name of Brittany; and that the eleven thousand virgins, who 
afterwards figured so prominently in the Romish martyrology, were 
maidens sent over from the island of Britain to serve as wives to 
these adventurers. Such stories have no foundation in accurate 
history ; and we have no good reason for supposing that the 
usurpation of Maximus had led to any very formidable invasion of 
the province in which he had assumed the purple, although it is 
not probable that the Picts and Scots would allow such an oppor- 
tunity to pass without a renewal of their predatory incursions. 
All that we know is, that after the death of Maximus, Theodosius 
marched into Gaul, where he appointed one of his eastern officers, 



882 THE ROMANS. [chap. xm. 

Chrysanthus, to the government of Britain. The new vicar 
probably carried back with hirn most of the British troops, and 
perhaps he took reinforcements. He is said to have restored 
the island to a state of tranquillity. After ruling Britain for a 
short period, Chrysanthus returned to the east, where he was 
made praefect of Constantinople ; and by a singular change of pro- 
fession, this minister of the imperial will was subsequently made 
a bishop. 

We are now again left in utter darkness as to the internal 
condition of Roman Britain, but it seems to have been exposed to 
continual attacks from the Picts and Scots, or from the Saxons. 
The emperor Theodosius died in 395, and left his western 
dominions to be ruled by the feeble Honorius, while Arcadius 
governed the east. For a time the talents of Stilicho arrested the 
fate of the empire, and it appears that Britain owed to this great 
general some years of unusual tranquillity. In the Notitia Imperii, 
composed in this reign, we learn the military force which was 
then employed for the protection of the island.* The twentieth 
legion, which had been so long stationed at Deva (Chester), 
had then been entirely withdrawn ; it is believed to have been 
taken away towards the end of the fourth century, to be employed 
in the Getic war. Two legions, however, still remained, with 
numerous bodies of auxiliaries ; and as these legions were the 
same that had always been in Britain, they furnish evidence of 
the inaccuracy of the statement that the island had been exhausted 
of its defenders. The sixth legion remained in its old quarters 
at Eburacum, but the second legion had been removed from Isca 
to RutupiaB, in order, no doubt, that it might be ready to act 
against the Saxon marauders, or, in case of need, to be transported 
into Gaul. The south-eastern and eastern coasts were strongly 
guarded, and in the latter several fortresses appear to have been 
newly erected, which are not mentioned at an earlier period ; 
such as Othona, on the coast of Essex (the Saxon Ythanceaster, 
the site of which is supposed to be now covered by the sea), 
Gariannonum, in Suffolk (now Burgh Castle), and Branodunum, 
in Norfolk (the site of which is now called Brancaster).^ The 
cities and municipal towns no doubt retained their military 
organisation ; and in the invasions to which the island was at 
this time exposed, they had to provide for their own defence. 

* See before p. 351. 



chap, xiil] THE USUEPER CONSTANTINE. 383 

In the beginning of the fifth century, the soldiers in Britain 
revolted, and conferred the title of emperor on a man named 
Marcus. Soon tired of his rule, they slew him in 407, and chose 
in his place Gratian, a burgher of one of the towns in Britain.* 
This shows the prominent part which the towns took in the 
political troubles which then prevailed. Gratian was allowed to 
reign four months, and then he also was slain. The lot next fell 
upon an obscure soldier, who is said to have been chosen merely 
because his name was Constantine, which was imagined to be 
a good omen. It is probable, however, that he possessed other 
qualities, for he was no sooner invested with the purple than he 
showed a vigour and decision of character equal to the task he 
had undertaken. He at once collected his army and passed into 
Gaul, where he was received as a deliverer, and acknowledged as 
the emperor of the west. His reputation and popularity increased, 
when the Germans, who had harassed the country, were reduced 
to submission by his two praefects, Justinus and Neviogastes. 

At this moment (the earlier part of the year 408), the death of 
the emperor Arcadius, and the elevation to the throne of the east 
of Theodosius II., occupied the attention of the western emperor ; 
but, on the arrival of news of Constantine's revolt, Stilicho, 
who was still alive, proceeded to Rome to concert measures for 
suppressing it. He began by sending one of his generals, Sarus, 
into Gaul, who defeated the prsefect Justinus in battle, and slew 
him and a great part of his men. He then laid siege to Valentia, 
where he had been informed that Constantine was holding 
his court. Here Neviogastes offered to negotiate, but he was 
entrapped by Sarus, and treacherously put to death. Constantine, 
not discouraged, appointed two new prefects, Edovinchus,a Frank, 
and count Gerontius, a native of Britain, whose military talents 
were so well known, that Sarus raised the siege of Valentia, and 
made so hasty a retreat before Constantine's troops, that he was 
obliged to give up his plunder and baggage to the Bacaudi, who 
held the passes of the Alps. 

Constantine now felt secure in his power, and he proceeded to 
strengthen the frontiers of his territories with garrisons and 
military posts. He next conferred the dignity of Caesar on his 

* Apud Britannias Gratianus, municeps ejusdem insulse, tyrannus creatur et 
occiditur. — Orosius, Sist. t lib. vii. c. 40. 



384 THE ROMANS. [chap. xiii. 

eldest son Constans, whom, it is said, he took from a monastery 
to associate with him in the empire. Constans marched with a 
part of his father's army into Spain, and, not without some 
difficulty, reduced that province also to his sway, and then, 
leaving count Gerontius to command it, returned to Gaul, at a 
moment when the death of Stilicho seemed to have relieved the 
usurper from all danger. Constantine now followed a policy 
similar to that of Maximus, in sending an embassy to Ravenna to 
entreat the forgiveness of Honorius for accepting an empire which 
he said had been forced upon him by the soldiery. Honorius, 
pressed by difficulties on all sides, reluctantly permitted him to 
retain the title he had usurped. Constantine afterwards sent 
Jovius, a man of learning and talent, as his envoy to the imperial 
court, to ask forgiveness for the murder of Didymus and 
Verinianus, two near relations of Honorius, who had been taken 
prisoners by Constans in Spain, and he succeeded in obtaining 
a formal recognition of his title. 

The successful rebel had now to contend with a rebellion 
against himself. Constans returned to Spain, carrying with him 
a new general, named Justus, whose appointment was so offensive 
to count Gerontius, that he revolted with the army under his 
command, and by means of his agents procured a new invasion of 
Gaul by the barbarians. Instead of assuming the purple himself, 
Gerontius conferred the dignity of emperor on a man named 
Maximus, and leaving him to reign in Spain, pursued Constans 
across the Pyrenees, and having captured him at Vienne, imme- 
diately put him to death. He then marched to besiege the father 
in the city of Aries. At this time (a.d. 411) occurred the death 
of Alaric, and Honorius, relieved from the terror which the 
name of the Gothic king had so long inspired, sent count Con- 
stantius with a powerful army to assert his authority in Gaul and 
Spain. Constantius approached Aries at the moment when 
it was closely besieged by Gerontius, whose soldiers raised 
the siege tumultuously, and rising furiously against their com- 
mander, put him to death. Gerontius being thus disposed of, 
Constantius, with the troops of Honorius, continued the siege of 
Aries, and, after defeating a body of troops which had come to the 
assistance of Constantine, compelled him to surrender. He made 
conditions for his life, and was sent a prisoner to Italy; but he 
was privately put to death before he reached Eavenna. 



chap, xiil] THE CITIES OF BRITAIN. 385 

The triumph of Constantius did not restore Gaul to obedience, 
and from this time its western provinces, as well as Spain and 
Britain, threw off all subjection to Rome, and began to rule them- 
selves in their own way. This was not in itself a difficult task, for 
the cities had always been accustomed to govern themselves, and 
the superior government consisted principally of the fiscal depart- 
ment and the military command. It appears by the narrative of 
Zosimus, that while the usurper was establishing himself in Gaul, 
Britain had been again visited by the Saxon invaders, and we are 
assured that the British cities took up arms to defend themselves, 
and that they drove away their assailants. * Their freedom was 
acknowledged by Honorius, who, in 410, sent letters to the cities 
of Britain exhorting them to provide for their own safety.f 

We now approach a period, the real history of which is involved 
in profound obscurity, and to understand it at all, we must glance 
back on what has been already said of the state of the island under 
Roman rule. The municipal cities, as it has been seen, were 
founded for the security and protection of the province, and by 
their constitution each was a little republic in itself, governed by 
itself, while they were linked together only by the superior fiscal 
administration which took from them certain fixed taxes, by the 
judicial administration which regulated the relations between them, 
and by the military command which held the province and defended 
it. , During four centuries, the original population of the island 
must have been much diminished, and perhaps, except in particular 
parts, consisted of little more than the servile peasantry ; J the 
population of the cities had been recruited by the natural increase 
of the inhabitants and by arrivals from the continent, and we 
have already seen by the inscriptions and other monuments that 
the latter class of recruits were becoming more and more Teutonic. 
In fact, there can be little doubt that German blood predominated, 
to a great extent, in many of the Roman cities in Britain, at the 

* OiVe ovv £k tt)s Bperra'Aas oirXa ivdovTes, (Kpcvv avrcoy irpoKivfivvevcravTES) 
i]\€v6epcaaay rcou iTriKeifMevoov (Sapfiapoov ras ttoXels. — Zosimus, lib. vi. c. 6. 

f 'Ovooptov 5e ypajAixavi irpos tcls hf Bperravia x? y \ (Ja '\ x * vov ^o\els 9 (pvXdr- 
recrdai TvaparyyeXXovai. — Zoshmis, lib. vi. c. 10. 

X Some confusion has been created by misunderstanding the term Britons as 
used by the later historians, who apply it to the Roman population born in the 
island, and not to the original Celtic race. In the same way the later writers apply 
the term Celtic to the Romano-Gallic population of Gaul, to distinguish it from 
the Teutonic invaders from the other side of the Rhine. 



386 THE SAXONS. [char xiii. 

time when Honorius gave them entire independence. J They were 
thus left somewhat in the position of the free cities of the middle 
ages, each ruling itself internally, within its own massive walls 
and surrounding territory, and, in external affairs, either acting 
by itself or joining in confederacy with other towns. 

The invasions of the Saxons had resembled much that of the 
Danes at a later period. At first mere predatory attacks, they had 
gradually made their leaders acquainted with the island and its 
inhabitants, and these appear to have attempted soon to form per- 
manent settlements, selecting just the same coast districts as were 
chosen by the Danes for the same purpose. It seems to be the re- 
ceived opinion that the title littus Saxonicum, applied to the coasts 
of Suffolk and Norfolk during the later Roman period, indicates that 
there was a Saxon population there, subject of course to the Roman 
government. It was perhaps also the case in other parts of the 
kingdom. When new invasions took place, these settlers probably 
often rose to join their brethren. The latter, during the divisions 
of the island under the later emperors, were frequently called in by 
one party in the island as allies, and they took part in the attempt to 
throw off the yoke of Rome. | When, therefore, the British cities 
were left to themselves, it is natural that they should become more 
intimately connected, either as friends or foes, with the Teutons 
from the Rhine and the Elbe. It seems certain that in some 
parts, especially in some of the cities, the transition from Roman 
to Saxon was gradual, and that the two races mixed together. At 
Canterbury, Colchester, Rochester, and other places, we find Roman 
and Saxon interments in the same cemetery ; and in the extensive 
Saxon burial-ground at Osengal in the isle of Thanet, a Roman 
interment in a leaden coffin was met with. The result of the 
discoveries which have been made in the researches among the 
Saxon cemeteries, has been to render it more and more probable, 
that the Saxons were gradually gaining a footing in the island 
before the period at which the grand invasions are understood to 
have commenced. 

The Picts appear to have entered the Roman provinces, not by 
scaling the wall, according to the vulgar notion published under 
the name of Gildas, but from the Solway, where they were joined 
by the Scots, or Irish, and thence^they spread themselves over 
the north-eastern parts of England. I When we excavate the sites 
of Roman towns in this part of the country, we still meet with 



chap, xhl] RAVAGES OF THE BARBARIANS. 387 

traces of their destructive progress. Thus, when the interior of 
the station at Maryport, in Cumberland, was excavated in 1766, 
the workmen found the arch of the gate beaten violently down 
and broken ; and on entering the great street, they discovered 
evident marks of the houses having been more than once burnt to 
the ground and rebuilt, as though the place had been several 
times taken and recovered. At Ribchester, in Lancashire, the 
important Roman town of Coccium appears to have been destroyed 
in one of these later inroads. In the course of excavations 
made there in the earlier part of the present century, the ruins of 
the temple of Minerva were discovered; they presented indis- 
putable proofs of its having been burnt, and among the debris were 
found skeletons, no doubt those of soldiers who had here 
made their last stand against the assailants. It was a parallel story 
to that of the destruction of Camulodunum by the fierce troops of 
Boadicea. It is also, worthy of remark, that all the Roman towns 
on the Welsh border to the north of Gloucester were destroyed 
before the period of the Saxon invasion. 

Such are the slight and rather vague notions we can form 
of what took place in Britain after the cities were left to take 
care of themselves. It was not an independent state, but a 
number of small independent republics, which of course had a 
common interest against invaders, but which would most probably 
be soon divided into hostile confederacies amongst themselves. 
In these intestine wars, the prevalence of Teutonic blood in the 
population of so many of the towns, would naturally lead them to 
call in Teutonic allies, and we can thus easily understand how 
Angles and Saxons were gradually establishing themselves on the 
eastern and south-eastern coasts, while the western districts were 
harassed by continual invasions of Picts and Scots. The only 
allusion to these events by a contemporary writer; is found in 
the Chronicle of Prosper of Aquitaine, about a.d. 455, who 
states that in the eighteenth year of the reign of Theodosius the 
Younger (a d. 441), Britain, after many slaughters and revolutions, 
was reduced under the rule of the Saxons. * 

The period which intervened, left a blank by contemporary 
annalists, was at a later period filled up with fable. According 
to the tract which goes under the name of Gildas, when Maximus 

* Britanniae usque ad hoc tempus variis cladibus eventibusque latae, in ditionem 
Saxonum rediguutur. 

c c 2 



388 THE SAXONS. , [chap. xiii. 

carried with him the soldiery of Britain to establish his usurpation 
in Gaul, he left the island not only destitute of military, but 
without men capable of bearing arms, and it was thus exposed 
in a state of helplessness to the attacks of the barbarians. The 
British* soldiers and youths, we are told, never again returned, 
and " for many years" the Britons groaned under the cruel 
oppressions of the Picts and Scots.* At length, their power of 
forbearance being exhausted, they sent an embassy to Rome, 
offering as suppliants to submit to the authority of the emperor if 
he would render them assistance. In his compassion for their 
sad condition, the emperor forgot their past rebellion, and sent a 
legion to help them, who defeated the invaders with terrible 
slaughter. Before the legion returned, they showed the Britons 
how to build a wall across the island from sea to sea, as a defence 
against the barbarians ; but they were so unskilful as to build it of 
nothing but turf, and the Roman soldiers were no sooner gone, 
than the Picts and Scots, despising such a barrier as this, spread 
themselves again over south Britain, and committed greater 
havoc than ever. " And now again," says the writer we are 
quoting, " the Britons sent suppliant ambassadors, with their 
garments rent and their heads covered with ashes, imploring 
assistance from the Romans, and, like timorous chickens, crowding 
under the protecting wings of their parents, that their wretched 
country might not altogether be destroyed, and that the Roman 
name, which now was but an empty sound to fill the ear, might 
not become a reproach even to distant nations. Upon this, the 
Romans, moved with compassion, as far as human nature can be, 
at the relation of such horrors, send forward, like eagles in their 
flight, their unexpected bands of cavalry by land and mariners by 
sea, and planting their terrible swords upon the shoulders of their 
enemies, they mow them down like leaves which fall at the 
destined period." ( On this occasion the Romans were more gene- 
rous than before, for they helped the natives to build a stone wall, 
from sea to sea (the Wall of Hadrian); and they raised fortresses 
at stated intervals along the south-eastern coast. When they were 
gone, the Picts and Scots reappeared. Throwing up hooks, they 
pulled the Britons down from the top of their wall, and slew them, 

* Exinde Britannia, omni armato milite, militaribusque copiis, rectoribus lin- 
quitur immanibus, ingenti juventute spoliata, qnas comitata vestigiis supradicti 
tyranni domum nimquam ultra rediit ; &c. — Gildas, § 14. 



chap, xiii.] HISTORICAL LEGENDS. 389 

and then, passing the wall, they destroyed the cities and murdered 
the inhabitants. \ At length the Britons made a third appeal to 
Eome, and addressing themselves to "a powerful Roman citizen" 
named iEtius, in a letter entitled " the groans of the Britons," 
they implored assistance in the most piteous terms. This, how- 
ever, could no longer be given, and the Britons were left to the 
accumulated evils of invasion and famine. After a while, how- 
ever, came peace and plenty, and then the Britons fell into luxurious 
habits, became proud and turbulent, and quarrelled among them- 
selves. " Kings were anointed, not according to God s ordinance, 
but such as showed themselves more cruel than the rest ; and 
soon after, they were put to death by those who had elected them, 
without any inquiry into their merits, but because others still 
more cruel were chosen to succeed them." At length rumours 
came of a new and terrible invasion of the Picts and Scots, and 
the British chiefs held a council under their proud tyrant 
Gurthrigern (Vortigern), and came to the fatal resolution of 
calling in the Saxons. These, though brought in peaceably, be- 
came worse tyrants than the Picts and Scots, until at length the 
Britons rose under Ambrosius Aurelianus, " the only one of the 
Roman nation who had been left alive" in the island, and then 
followed a long struggle between the Britons and the Saxons, 
until the latter finally established themselves in the land. 

Such is the narrative which has been usually taken for the 
history of Britain during the first half of the fifth century. Its 
composer was ignorant of the events which followed the usurpation 
of Maximus, as well as of the early Saxon invasions ; he adopted 
later and vulgar legends relating to the two walls, and he evidently 
misunderstood and misplaced the usurpations of Marcus, Gratian, 
and Constantine, who were probably the cruel kings to whom he 
alludes. In fact, the whole story, built apparently on some slight 
notes in an old continental chronicler, displays the most profound 
ignorance of the period to which it relates. All we know relating 
to the book ascribed to Gildas is, that it existed before Bede — the 
st}de of its Latinity appears to me to be of the latter part of the 
seventh century, and these brief notices of history seem to be 
founded partly on Saxon traditions. This, however, is not the 
place to discuss the question of its authenticity. 

Bede has adopted the narrative of Gildas, only adding to it 
some circumstances from more authentic historians, and the 



390 THE SAXONS. [chap. xnr. 

account of the Saxon invasion from the traditions of his own 
countrymen. Here he is unfortunately very brief. He tells us 
that the Teutonic settlers came hither under their two chiefs, 
Hengest and Horsa, in the year 449, and that they were received 
in peace, and allowed to settle in the isle of Thanet. Their 
success, he says, induced others to follow in greater numbers, 
who were also received into the island as friends and allies. 
They consisted of three of the bravest of the Teutonic 
tribes — the Saxons, Angles, and Jutes. The Jutes formed the 
population of Kent, the isle of Wight, and the opposite coast 
district. The Saxons established themselves in Essex, Middlesex, 
and Wessex. The Angles occupied East-Anglia, the country of 
the Middle- Angles, Mercia, and all the northern parts of the 
kingdom. 

The ordinary notion, that the first settlement was that under 
Hengest and Horsa, has arisen from the circumstance that the 
Anglo-Saxon accounts of these events were founded on the 
traditions of Kent. It is probable, however, that they had been 
preceded by the Angles in the north, for w 7 hen we first become 
acquainted with them, this tribe appears to have been long in undis- 
puted possession of the w 7 hole country, from the Humber to the 
wall of Antoninus, which was formed into two kingdoms, 
that of Bernicia and that of Deira. Eburacum, to which the 
Angles gave the name of Eofor-wic, afterwards corrupted into 
York — the important town on the wall, Pons jElii, which 
was under the Saxons still a great commercial town, known 
by the name of Munuces-ceaster (Monk's-chester), — with others 
of the Eoman towns in Yorkshire, appear to have passed 
peaceably or by treaty under the rule of the settlers ; while 
others, more especially in Northumberland and the lowlands of 
Scotland, had perhaps been destroyed before their arrival. The 
presumption, however, is, that the settlement of the Angles in 
the north had begun at a very early period after the island had 
been abandoned by the Eomans, and that they had been called in 
to the assistance of the northern towns. 

The Saxon Chronicle, composed ages afterwards, gives us the 
first narrative of the wars between the Saxons and the Britons 
in the south, after the former had gained a footing there ; it is 
founded on the Anglo-Saxon traditions, perhaps on poems, and 
there are many circumstances about it which would lead us to 



chap, xiil] FIRST SAXON INVASIONS. 391 

believe that it is partly romance. Even the names of Hengest 
and Horsa are supposed to be mythic.''' The Saxon Chronicle 
informs us, that in the year 455, or six years after the arrival of 
Hengest, a battle was fought at iEgeles-threp in Kent (Ayles- 
ford), between the Saxons under Hengest and Horsa, and the 
Britons under Vortigern, in which Horsa was slain; and according 
to Bede, who also mentions this battle, his tomb was still shown 
at a place which was called by his name, — it is said to be the 
modern Horsted. After this, the Chronicle tells us, Hengest and 
iEsc, his son, obtained the Kentish kingdom. The roval race of 
Kent was called, after the latter, iEscingas. Xext year, Hengest 
and zEsc defeated "four troops" of Britons at a place called 
Crecganford (Craijford), with great slaughter. In 457 there was 
another battle at Crecganford, in which the Saxons slew four 
thousand men, "and the Britons then forsook Kent, and in great 
terror fled to London/' Eight years afterwards, in 4G5, Hengest 
and iEsc are said to have fought " against the Welsh " at 
Wippedes-fleot, a place of which we are not acquainted with the 
modern representative, but which is said to have received that 
name from Wipped, a Saxon chief who was slain on this occa- 
sion. We are informed that " twelve Welsh ealdormen," or 
chiefs, were slain in this battle. After eight years again, in 
473, there was another war between the Kentish Saxons and 
the Britons, and "the Welsh fled from them like nre."f After 
this date, we hear no more of the Kentish kingdom and its 
wars, except that iEsc succeeded to the kingdom in 488, until 
the accession of king Athelbert, or Ethelbert, in 565. The 

* On the un-historic character of the narratives of the Saxon invasion of Britain, 
the reader is referred to a rather long dissertation in Lappenberg's " England under 
the Anglo-Saxons." (Translation), and to Kemble's {t Saxons in England." 

f The reader mast bear in mind, that Britons and Welsh are merely general 
terms applied by the Saxons to the Romanised population of the island. The 
former was, of course, merely the Roman name, as they adopted it. The word 
"Welsh (ifilisc, wcelise) meant simply a foreigner, one who was not of Teutonic 
race, and was applied especially to nations using the Latin language. In the 
middle ages the French languages, and, in fact, all those derived from Latin, and 
termed on that account linguce Romance, were called in German Welsch. France 
was called by the mediaeval German writers daz welsche hint, and when they 
wished to express {i in the whole world," they said in alien welschen unci in 
tiutschen nchen, in all Welsh and Teutonic kingdoms. In modern German the 
name Walsch is used more especially for Italian. It was in its primitive sense 
that the Saxons applied the name to the Britons, and from them it has come 
gradually to its present restricted use. 



392 THE SAXONS. [chap. xin. 

principal Rornan towns of Kent seem to have passed into the 
possession of the Saxons peacefully. Hengest and Horsa are 
said to have first landed at Ypwines-fleet (Ebbs-fleet), and the 
Saxons no doubt immediately received Rutupise (RicJiborough) 
into their hands. Durovernum they made their capital, and on 
that account it received the name of Cantwara-byrig, the city 
of the Kentishmen, now Canterbury; Dubrae and Regulbium 
retained their original names, slightly changed into Dover and 
Reculver; and Durobrivse was called, it is said, from a chief who 
ruled over it, Hrofes-ceaster, the Chester or city of Hrof, now 
Rochester. 

Leaving the history of Kent, the Saxon Chronicle, taking up 
another set of traditions, tells us, that in the year 477, the 
Saxons, under iElla and his three sons, Cymen, Wlencing, and 
Cissa, landed on the southern coast, at a place named, after one 
of the sons, Cyinenes-ora (Keynor on Selsea), " and there they slew 
many Welsh, and some they drove in flight into the wood that is 
named Andrecles-leah," the Roman Silva Anderida. iElla and 
his sons, like Hengest and Horsa, came in three ships. Here, 
again, eight years passed until the next great struggle between 
the followers of iElla and the Britons. In 485, iElla fought 
against the Britons near the banks of the Mearcraedes-burna, and 
the battle is represented, in traditions gathered by a later writer, 
to have been obstinately fought, and to have had a doubtful result. 
For six years both parties seem to have remained in peace; and 
then, in 491, in consequence, it is said, of new arrivals from the 
continent, the Saxons recommenced the war, and iElla and Cissa 
laid siege to the ancient Roman city of Anderida, which was called 
by the Saxons Andredes-ceaster. It is said to have been reduced 
by famine, and the Saxons, irritated at its long and obstinate 
defence,' slew all the inhabitants. The massive walls of the 
ancient city are still seen at Pevensey. Thus was established 
the kingdom of the South-Saxons, or Sussex. Here the country 
was evidently dependent on the Roman city, and was only con- 
quered when that city was taken. The other Roman city, 
Regnum, probably submitted without a siege, and received the 
name of Cissan-ceaster, the Chester or fortified town of Cissa, 
since softened down into Chichester. 

The Saxon Chronicle next informs us, that, in 495, another 
body of Saxons, under two chiefs, Cerdic and his son Cynric, 



chap, xhl] WARS OF THE SAXOXS. 393 

landed from five ships at a place called Cerdices-ora, on the coast 
of Hampshire, " and the same clay they fought against the 
Welsh." Six years after, another Saxon chief, named Port, with 
his two sons, Bieda and Maegla, landed at a place named, it is 
pretended, from him Portsmouth,* and there fought with the 
Britons, and "slew a young British man of high nobility." In 
508, another great battle was fought by Cerclic and Cynric, in 
which a British king named Natan-leod and five thousand men 
were slain. "After that the country was named Natan-lea, as 
far as Cerdices-ford (Cliarford)" In six years again (a.d. 514), 
Cerdic 's two nephews, Stuf and Wihtgar, came with three more 
ship-loads of Saxons, and landed at Cerdices-ora. The Britons 
were still there to oppose them, but the new-comers were 
victorious in battle. Cerdic and Cynric are stated to have 
established the kingdom of the West-Saxons in 519, in which 
year they defeated the Britons in a great battle at Cerdices-ford. 
In 5 27 they gained another great battle at a place called 
Cerdices-leah. During the intervening years, Cerdic was, no 
doubt, occupied in strengthening and regulating his conquest; 
the Koman city of Venta had passed over to him, and under the 
name of Wintan-ceaster (Winchester), which, no doubt, means the 
Chester of Venta, was made the capital of the West Saxons. The 
last exploit of Cerdic and Cynric recorded in the Chronicle, is 
the conquest cf Wight from the Jutes; Cerdic died in 534, and 
his son gave the isle of Wight to Stuf and Wihtgar, who had 
probably been instrumental in its conquest. 

Cynric soon sought to extend his kingdom. In 552 he defeated 
the Britons in a battle near the Eoman city of Sorbiodunum, 
called by the Saxons Searo-byrig (now Old Sarum). He died in 
560, and was succeeded by his son Ceawlin, whose power ex- 
tended into Surrey, and he was engaged in resisting an attack 
from Athelbert, king of Kent; after which he extended his con- 
quests northwards, so far as to make himself master of some of 
the principal towns in the modern counties of Bedford, Bucking- 
ham, and Oxford. He next pushed his conquests westward; and, 
in 577, Ceawlin and his brother Cuthwine, or Cutha, defeated the 
Britons in a great battle at Deorham (Derham) in Gloucestershire, 

* This is most undoubtedly a legendary derivation, and should make us the 
more cautious in receiving the statements of the Chronicle with regard to these 
early events. 



394 THE SAXONS. [chap. xiii. 

and obtained possession of the three great Roman cities of Glevum, 
Corinium, and Aquas Soils, which became known to the Saxons 
by the name of Glev-ceaster or Gleow-ceaster [Gloucester), Cyren- 
ceaster {Cirencester), and Bathan-ceaster (Bath). 

We have no information to enable us to judge on what authority 
the dates of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle during this period rest; 
but the singular manner in which one kingdom begins to be 
founded, after the preceding kingdom had been established, 
cannot fail to arrest our attention. It seems as though the 
brief narrative had been abridged from some memorial poem, 
where the compiler mistook the order in which the establish- 
ment of the different kingdoms w 7 as told, as indicating the suc- 
cession of dates at which they took place. It certainly appears 
more probable that the invasion of the Teutonic tribes took 
place nearly at the same time, or in rapid succession one 
after another. 

The Saxon Chronicle, compiled in Wessex, gives little in- 
formation on the progressive establishment of the kingdoms 
founded by the Angles. We are merely informed that, in 547, 
Ida began to reign in Northumbria, and that he built a town which 
was called, in honour of his wife Bebba, Behhsai-bjiig(BamborougJi). 
In 560 Ida died, and was succeeded by his son iElla. According to 
an obscure tradition, the Saxons first landed in Essex, under 
their king iEscwine or Ercenwine, as early as the year 527 ; 
they probably only came to strengthen the older settlements on 
what had long been known as the Saxon coast. Camulodunum 
and other towns seem to have been occupied without any resist- 
ance. The coasts to the north of them were seized by the Angles, 
W'ho appear to have consisted of two tribes, distinguished by their 
positions as the North-folk and the South-folk^or/bZ/c and Suffolk). 
Their power extended over Cambridgeshire and into Lincolnshire. 
It w^as from settlements in the north of the latter county that 
another branch of the Angles extended themselves so rapidly 
through the heart of England, until they reached the borders of 
Wales, and intrenched upon the West Saxons to the south. 
They took the name of Myrce, which has been Latinised into 
Mercians. The great extent of ground which the Angles occu- 
pied in Britain is quite sufficient to explain the statement of the 
old historians, that they had completely evacuated their native 
land, and left it uninhabited. From them, as the earliest 



chap, xhl] POPE GREGOBY AND THE ANGLES. 395 

settlers, and the most numerous, the island became known among 
foreign writers by the names of Anglia and Anglorum terra, and 
among the Saxons themselves it was usually called Engla-land 
(England), and the language of its inhabitants Englisc (English). 
The population of the Teutonic portion of the island is still known 
by no other name than that of Englishmen, 

The Teutons who had come into the island at an earlier period 
as auxiliaries, had always, as a matter of course, conformed to the 
religious forms and laws of the Romans ; but now they preserved 
their own religion and their own institutions. Saxon paganism 
was everywhere substituted for Roman, and it w r as only perhaps in 
a few cases — chiefly, we may suppose, in the towns — that indi- 
viduals preserved for a w r hile their respect for Roman gods or 
their attachment to Roman ceremonies. The latter are some 
times traced in Saxon cemeteries, where a Roman interment 
is found in the midst of graves of undoubted Teutonic cha- 
racter. This is the only indication we have of the transition, 
and it would be difficult to point out an exact date when pure 
Saxon interments began. We have less difficulty in fixing the 
other limit. 

The traffic in slaves prevailed very extensively among all the 
Teutonic peoples, and it is frequently mentioned or alluded to in 
the early historical records of Saxon England. We are told that, 
during the pontificate of Pelagius II., some boys from Saxon 
Britain, distinguished by their beauty, were exposed for sale in 
the slave-market at Rome. The priest Gregory, as he passed 
through the ancient forum, was struck with their appearance, and 
on being told that they were Pagans from Britain, he lamented that 
people having such bright countenances should remain a prey to 
the spirit of darkness. Continuing the conversation, with the 
same play upon words, he was told that they were called Angles, 
upon which he observed that it was a just name, for they had 
angelic faces, and ought to be the co-heirs of angels in heaven. He 
then asked the name of the province from which they came, and 
was told that it was the kingdom of Deira. " It is well," he said, 
" they shall be cle ira ernti, snatched from the wrath and brought 
to the mercy of Christ." He was next told that the name of their 
king was iElla. " That," he said, " is Alleluiah, and it is right 
that the praise of God should be sung in that land." Full of pro- 
jects of conversion, Gregory hastened to the pope, and begged to 



396 THE SAXONS. [chap. xiii. 

be employed on this distant mission ; but the citizens, with whom 
he was extremely popular, were unwilling to allow of his absence. 
Nothing further, therefore, was done towards the conversion of the 
Anglo-Saxons, until, in 590, Gregory himself was elected to the 
papal see. The Anglian children were then remembered, and 
Gregory dispatched missionaries under the guidance of St. Augus- 
tine to visit the distant island. Their zeal, however, was not 
equal to that of their employer ; for they had proceeded no further 
than Provence, when they were so alarmed by the descriptions of 
the barbarous character of the Anglo-Saxons, that Augustine was 
sent back to Rome to obtain the revocation of their mission. 
Gregory exhorted him to persevere, gave him letters of recom- 
mendation to the Frankish kings, Theoderic and Theodebert, and 
to their grandmother Brunhilda, as well as to the Frankish 
bishops, who furnished them with interpreters. In the year 597, 
Augustine, with, it is said, above forty monks, landed in the 
isle of Thanet, no doubt in the old Roman port of Rutupiae ; 
from whence he sent a messenger to Athelbert, king of Kent, to 
announce the object of his mission. 

It happened that Athelbert had married Berta, the daughter of 
Charibert, king of Paris ; and it was one of the terms of the 
marriage contract that, as a Christian princess, she should be 
allowed the free exercise of her faith, and that she should retain 
for that purpose the Frankish bishop Liudhard, who had accom- 
panied her to England, and who now officiated in the little 
church of St. Martin, near Canterbury. Christianity was not 
thus totally unknown among the Kentish Saxons. Athelbert 
received the message of the missionaries with favour, and directed 
that they should remain for the present in Thanet. A few days 
after he went to visit them, and gave audience in the open air ; 
for, influenced by the ancient superstitions of his forefathers, he 
feared that if he received them in a house, they might get the 
better of him by magical arts. It is recorded, that when the 
king had patiently listened to what they had to say, he replied, 
" Your words and promises are very fair, but as they are new to 
us, and of uncertain import, I cannot so far approve of them, as to 
forsake that which I have so long followed with the whole English 
nation. But because you are come from afar into my kingdom, 
and, as I. conceive, are desirous to impart to us those things 
which you believe to be true, we will not molest you, but give you 



chap, xih.] CONVERSION OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. :_:.■: 

favourable entertainment, and take care to supply you with your 
necessary sustenance ; nor do we forbid you to preach and gain as 
many as you can to your religion.'' The Roman monks marched 
in solemn procession to Canterbury, where they established 
themselves, and of which city Augustine was subsequently made 
the first bishop. 

The new faith was ultimately accepted by king Athelbert, 
and soon spread with extraordinary rapidity over Kent, and 
through the other kingdoms wherever that king's influence ex- 
tended. The East-Saxons received baptism in 604 : and in 

;he year of the battle near Chester, rendered celebrated by 
the slaughter of the Welsh monks, the faith of the Gospel must 
have been established far towards the west. With the mass of 
the people conversion was at first a mere change of forms, and 
they easily resumed their old customs : and it naturally took some 
years to make the change permanent. Thus Augustine had 
appointed Mellitus bishop of London, and he is said to have 
selected there the site of a ruined temple of the Roman period to 
build a church, no doubt because it furnished an unoccupied place 
and ready materials. The Saxon Chronicle informs us, that after 
Mellitus became bishop of Canterbury, an event which is gene- 
rally placed in the year 619, ;; then the men of London, where 
Mellitus had been formerly, became heathens again.'' The 
example had already been set them by the East-Saxons, and even 

7 Kentish men, after the death of their first Christian kings. 
Tress of the Christian faith among the Anglo-Saxons 
was, on several occasions, materially assisted by intermarriages 
among their chiefs. Athelbert of Kent, before the arrival of the 
missionaries, had married a Christian lady, the daughter of a 
Frankish king. The king of Essex, who first received the 
Gospel, had married a daughter of king Athelbert, who was also a 
Christian. Another daughter of Athelbert, Athelberga, was married 
to Edwin, king of the Northumbrians, and she no doubt paved 
the way for the preaching of Paulinos. The conversion of king 
Edwin took place in the year 626. The West-Saxons were converted 
by Birinus in 635; the East-Angles had embraced the new faith 
under their king Earpwald, about the year 632 ; but the Middle- 
Angles were not converted until the reign of Peada, the son of 
Penda, about the year 05 3. This king became a Christian on 
niarrving a daughter of the king of the Northumbrians, and 



THE SAXONS. [chap, xiil 



from Lincolnshire, the country of the Middle-Angles, the faith 
soon spread through the extensive dependencies of Mercia. At 
this time the faith of Christ had penetrated into every part of the 
island, except the small and secluded kingdom of the South- 
Saxons, which was cut off from the other Saxon states, and pro- 
tected in its independence, by the ancient forest of Anderida, the 
impervious Andredes-weald. As late as the year 681, the people 
of Sussex remained pagans. Their condition became known to 
Wilfred, archbishop of York, who, in returning from the conti- 
nent, was driven by stress of weather on the coast, and who 
subsequently founded a monastery on the little island of Selsea. 



chap, siv.l ANGLO-SAXON ANTIQUITIES. 399 



CHAPTER XIV. 

Anglo-Saxon Antiquities — Barrows, or Graves, and the general Character of 
their Contents — Arms — Personal Ornaments; Fibulae, &c. — Anglo-Saxon 
Jewellery — Pottery — Glass — Other Articles found in the Barrows ; Bowls, 
Buckets, &e. — Coins — Early Anglo-Saxon Coinage. 

We derive our antiquities of the period of Anglo-Saxon paganism 
almost entirely from one source, the graves. It happens, how- 
ever, fortunately for the study of the history of this period, that 
the contents of the Anglo-Saxon graves are particularly rich and 
interesting, and that we are enabled, from the various articles 
found in them, to form a tolerable estimate of the civilisation of 
our ancestors before the days of St. Augustine. The Anglo- 
Saxon graves occur generally in extensive groups, and on high 
ground. They are found thickly scattered over the downs of 
Kent, Sussex, and the Isle of Wight. Extensive cemeteries 
have also been found in Gloucester and Oxfordshire, as well as in 
Leicestershire, Derbyshire, Nottinghamshire, Northamptonshire, 
Lincolnshire, Cambridgeshire, Suffolk, and Norfolk, and in York- 
shire. They exist, no doubt, in other counties, where they have 
not yet been explored/' 1 " 

* The largest and most important collections of Anglo-Saxon antiquities are 
those of Lord Londesborough, Dr. Faussett of Heppington near Canterbury, and 
Mr. W. II. Rolfe of Sandwich, all taken from barrows in Kent. Smaller private 
collections are found in different parts of England, and a few articles belonging 
to this class are met with in most local museums; but there is as yet no public 
collection of early Anglo-Saxon remains of any importance. The most valuable 
work on the subject is the "Nenia" of Douglas, a folio volume published in 
1793. An interesting volume on the Anglo-Saxon cemeteries in Gloucestershire, 
has been recently published by Mr. "W. M. Wylie, under the title of (( Fairford 
Graves ;" and extensive materials for the archaeology of this period will he found 
in Mr. Roach Smith's " Collectanea," and in some of the volumes of the 
" Archaeologia." 



400 THE SAXONS. [chap. xiv. 

An Anglo-Saxon poem belonging, no doubt, to this primitive 
period — the adventures of Beowulf — has been preserved ; and, 
although it has been considerably modified in the transition, it 
still gives us glimpses of the manners of our forefathers before 
they had turned from the worship of Woden. * In this poem, but 
unfortunately in a part of it which is imperfect in the manuscript, 
we find a description of the ceremonies attendant on the burial of 
the hero. Beowulf's dying request was, that his people should 
raise a barrow " on the place of his funeral pile/' proportionate in 
size to the celebrity of his deeds. They accordingly raised a 
mighty funeral pile to burn his corpse ; it was — 

hung round with helmets, 

with boards of war (shields), 

and with bright byrnies (coats of mail), 

as he had requested. 

Then the heroes, weeping, 

laid down in the midst 

the famous chieftain, 

their dear lord. 

Then began on the hill 

the warriors to awake 

the mightiest of funeral fires : 

the wood-smoke rose aloft, 

dark from the fire ; 

noisily it went, 

mingled with weeping. 

After the burning of the body had been completed, Beowulf's 
people proceeded to raise — 

a mound over the sea ; 

it was high and broad, 

by the sailors over the waves 

to be seen afar. 

And they built up 

during ten days 

the beacon of the war-renowned. 

They surrounded it with a wall 

in the most honourable manner 

that wise men 

could desire. 

They put into the mound 

rings and bright gems, 

all such ornaments 



* The Anglo-Saxon poem of Beowulf was published with an English trans 
lation by Mr. J. M. Kenible, in 1837. 



chap, xiv.] ANGLO-SAXON BARROWS. 401 

as from the hoard before * 

the fierce-minded men 

had taken ; 

they suffered the earth to hold 

the treasure of warriors, 

gold on the sand, 

where it yet remains 

as useless to men 

as it was of old. — Beowulf, line 6268. 

When the mound was completed, the war-chiefs rode round it, 
chanting the praises of their departed king. 

In England we find in the graves of the Saxon period the same 
mixture of the two modes of interment, cremation and the burial 
of the body entire, as among the Romans, but in different and 
varying proportions. The custom in this respect appears to have 
varied with the different tribes who came into the island. In the 
Anglo-Saxon cemeteries in Kent, cremation is the rare exception 
to the general rule ; while it seems to have been the predo- 
minating practice among the Angles, from Norfolk into the centre 
of Mercia. The poem of Beowulf was perhaps derived from the 
Angles, and it thus describes the mode of burning the dead as it 
existed among them. 

The Anglo-Saxon barrows in general have a character very 
distinct from those of the Romans or Britons. They were the 
prototypes of our modern graves in country churchyards. A 
rectangular cist, or pit, was cut in the ground, varying in depth 
from three or four feet to seven or eight, on the floor of which the 
body was laid on its back in full dress, surrounded with a variety 
of articles which, no doubt, the deceased had valued when alive ; 
the grave was then filled up, and a mound of earth raised above. 
This mound was termed hlaw, a hillock, the modern word low, 
which is still used in Derbyshire, and beorh, beorg, or bearw, a 
word having the same signification, from which is derived our 
modern name of barrow. In Sussex they are still called burghs. 
Generally, each grave contains the remains of one body ; but 
instances occur where more than one body has been interred in 
the same grave, and under circumstances which show that they 
must have been buried simultaneously. We can only account for 
this, by supposing that they were members of the same family 

* Beowulf had signalised himself by killing a dragon which guarded a hoard 
of treasures, of which, as a matter of course, he took possession. 

D D 



402 THE SAXONS. [chap xiv. 

who had been carried off by an epidemic disease or slaughtered in 
a sudden invasion of plunderers. In the Anglo-Saxon cemetery at 
Osengal, in the isle of Thanet, one grave contained a male and a 
female skeleton, laid side by side, with their faces turned towards 
each other ; and another contained three skeletons, a lady in the 
middle, a man, no doubt her husband, on her right side ; and a 
child, apparently a little girl, on her left ; they lay arm-in-arm. 
More than one instance has occurred where a grave contained 
all the articles usually interred with a body, but no traces of the 
body. A remarkable instance of this was found in a large Anglo- 
Saxon grave in the cemetery in Bourne Park, near Canterbury. 
The grave was nearly fourteen feet long, about half that width, 
and somewhat more than four feet deep. The floor was very 
smoothly cut in the chalk, and surrounded by a narrow 7 gutter ; 
and the grave was filled up with fine mould brought from a 
distance, and not, as in most other cases, with the chalky soil of 
the spot. At the foot of the grave, in the right-hand corner, had 
stood a bucket, of which the bronze hoops, in perfect preservation, 
occupied their position one above another as if the wood had been 
there to support them. A little higher up in the grave, in the 
position generally occupied by the right leg of the person buried, 
was found a considerable heap of fragments of iron, among which 
were the boss of a shield of the usual Saxon form, a horse's bit, a 
buckle, and other fragments which appeared to have belonged to 
the shield, a number of nails with large ornamental heads, with 
smaller nails, the latter mostly of brass. From the position of 
the boss, it appeared that the shield had been placed with the 
convex (or outer) surface downwards. Not far from these articles, 
at the side of the grave, was found an iron ring with two smaller 
ones attached to it, apparently belonging to the horse's bridle, 
or to a belt. On the left-hand side of the grave was found a 
small piece of iron resembling the point of some weapon. At the 
head of the grave, on the right-hand side, was an elegantly shaped 
bowl, about a foot in diameter, and two inches and a half deep, 
of very thin copper, which had been thickly gilt, and with handles 
of iron. It had been placed on its edge leaning against the wall of 
the grave, and was crushed and broken by the weight of the super- 
incumbent earth. Two small round discs, resembling counters, 
about seven-eighths of an inch in diameter, were found near the 
head of the grave. They were flat on one side and convex on the 



chap, xiv.] ANGLO-SAXON BARROWS. 403 

other, the one of bone, while the other had been cut out of a piece 
of Samian ware. There was not the slightest trace of a body 
having ever been deposited in this grave ; the appearances were 
decisive to the contrary. This may be explained by supposing 
that the person for whom the grave was made had been a chief 
killed in battle in some distant expedition, and that his friends 
had not been able to obtain his body. It was, in fact, an 
Anglo-Saxon cenotaph. This view of the case seemed to be 
supported by the fact that, although so many valuable articles 
were found in the grave, there were no traces of the long sword 
and the knife generally found with the bodies of male adults in the 
Saxon barrows. These would have been attached to the body 
itself as a part of the dress. 

It is a singular circumstance connected with the Anglo-Saxon 
graves that human bones are often found among the earth at the 
top, sometimes in the mound above, and the unexperienced 
excavator is discouraged by this discovery, in the belief that the 
grave has been previously broken up, whereas, when he reaches 
the bottom, he finds that the original deposit has not been dis- 
turbed.* I can only explain this by the supposition that they are 
the bones of slaves or captives, slain as a propitiation to the 
shades of their master or mistress, and thrown upon the grave. 
We know that the immolation of slaves at funerals was a common 
practice among the Teutonic races. In the northern Edda, 
when Brynhild, like Dido, slew herself for her faithless lover, 
we are told that she ordered that at her funeral pile two immo- 
lated slaves should be placed at her head, and two at her feet. 

As I have said, the xAnglo-Saxon barrows are generally found in 
large groups or cemeteries, and the mound which covers each grave 
is very low, but this is perhaps to be attributed to the effect of time, 
as they are generally placed in exposed situations. But we some- 
times find isolated Anglo-Saxon barrows, which we can only appro- 
priate by the Saxon character of the articles they contain. Several 
of these are found in the peak of Derbyshire ; but they are met 
with chiefly on elevations near the sea. A bold conical hill 
overlooking Folkestone, in Kent, is crowned by a fine Saxon 
barrow. The sentiment which led to the choice of such positions 

* In a few instances the "bones in the upper part of the mound have heen found 
so much less decomposed than those underneath, that we can hardly avoid coming 
to the conclusion that they belonged to some later interment. 

DD 2 



404 THE SAXONS. [chap. xiv. 

may be gathered from more than one passage in the poem of 
Beowulf. It was the hero's dying request to his people, — 

command the war-chiefs 

to make a mound, 

bright after the funeral fire, 

upon the nose of the promontory ; 

which shall for a memorial 

to my people 

rise high aloft 

on Hronesness ; 

that the sea-sailors 

may afterwards call it 

Beowulf's barrow, 

when the Brentings 

over the darkness of the floods 

shall sail afar. — Beowulf, line 5599. 

The hill of Osengal, overlooking Pegwell bay near Kamsgate, 
and furnishing a magnificent view of the channel with the distant 
coast of France, is perforated like a honeycomb with the graves 
of an immense Saxon cemetery. Here time has entirely obli- 
terated the barrows which once covered the graves, and the latter 
were only discovered accidentally in the course of the railway 
cutting. Many of them have been since opened by Mr. Eolfe, of 
Sandwich, and have added considerably to the richness of his 
museum. The Anglo-Saxons generally placed their cemeteries 
on elevated spots, when they could be found in the neighbour- 
hood of their settlements. People seem to have been carried for 
burial there from the country at a distance around ; we generally 
also find Saxon cemeteries in the immediate neighbourhood of 
a Eoman city or town, where it continued to be occupied in 
Saxon times, and it is not unfrequently placed on the site of 
the older Roman cemetery of the town. Such is the case at 
Canterbury, Colchester, and other places. 

The Anglo-Saxon was buried in his full dress, with all his arms 
and accoutrements. By his side we generally find the long iron 
sword, the presence of which is, in itself, an unfailing evidence of 
the people to whom the grave belonged. These swords are often 
nearly a yard long, and were evidently intended rather for cutting 
than for thrusting. They appear usually to have been double- 
edged, and the blades are plain, and nearly uniform in shape. 
The one represented in our plate (fig. 5), found in the cemetery 
at Osengal in Thanet, appears to have had but one edge, with a 




Anglo-Saxon Weapons, &c. 



chap, xiv.] THE ANGLO-SAXON SWORD. 405 

blunt back. The hilts appear to have been made of wood or 
some other perishable material ; but sword-hilts of metal have 
also been found, and they are then extremely ornamental. Their 
general form may be understood by fig. 10. in our plate, which 
represents the hilt of a sword found in a barrow at x\sh, near 
Canterbury, and now in the possession of Mr. Rolfe. The metal 
appears to have been gilt, or silvered. A very handsome hilt of 
the same description, found with the sword in the parish of 
Coombe, in Kent, is engraved in the second volume of Mr. Roach 
Smith's Collectanea ; the ornamental parts in this instance were 
of bronze-gilt. Mr. Rolfe also possesses the extremity of a Saxon 
sword-hilt of silver, ornamented, and bearing an inscription in 
rudely formed runes, which nobody has yet been able to decipher. 
This curious relic, which was found also in the parish of Ash, is 
engraved in the Arch geological Album. In the poem of Beowulf, 
swords are not unfrequently described as having richly ornamented 
hilts. Thus one of the heroes, — 

gave his ornamented sword, 

the costliest of irons, 

to his servant. — Beowulf, line 1338. 

And in another passage it is said, — 

and with it the hilt, 

variegated with treasure. — Beowulf, line 3228. 

And a little further on there is a description particularly inter- 
esting as illustrating the description of the sword-hilts just given, 
especially of the silver hilt with the runic inscription. A sword, 
described as follows, bore not only the name of the possessor 
inscribed in runes, but also an episode of the ancient Saxon 
mythology, — 

He looked upon the hilt, 

the old legacy, 

on which was written the origin 

of the ancient contest ; 

after the flood, 

the pouring ocean, 

slew the race of giants ; 

daringly they behaved; 

that was a race strange 

to the eternal Lord, 

therefore to them their last reward 

through floods of water 



406 THE SAXONS. [chap. xvi. 

the ruler gave. 

So was on the surface 

of the bright gold 

with runic letters 

rightly marked, 

set and said, 

for whom that sword, 

the costliest of irons, 

was first made, 

with twisted hilt and variegated like a snake. 

Beoivulf, line 3373. 

The sheath appears to have been generally of wood, tipped with 
metal, and it was sometimes covered with, or made entirely of, 
leather. One found at Stroud, in Kent, was covered externally 
with a substance resembling shagreen. A Saxon sword found at 
Fairford, in Gloucestershire, had its wooden scabbard partly- 
remaining, protected at the top and bottom with bronze. 

On the opposite side of the body from the shield, and simi- 
larly attached to the girdle, we usually find one, or even more 
knives. These are usually of not very large dimensions, though 
they probably served the purposes of a dagger as well as those of 
a knife. In former days, people did not keep knives for the use 
of their guests, but the latter always carried their knives with 
them. A small knife is usually found with the other articles 
which appear by their position to have been suspended at the 
girdles of the Anglo-Saxon ladies. Mr. Roach Smith has 
engraved an interesting collection of Anglo-Saxon knives in the 
second volume of his Collectanea. The four represented in our 
plate, figs. 13 to 16, are from the Saxon cemetery at Osengal. 
Some antiquaries have supposed that these knives are the seaxas, 
from which the Saxons were pretended to have derived their 
name. 

The figures in our plate, Nos. 6 to 9, are examples of Saxon 
spear-heads, obtained from the cemetery of Osengal; they represent 
the usual forms of this weapon. The position of the shaft in the 
grave may generally be traced by a long line of black, decomposed 
wood, and a ferule, with a knob or spike, is sometimes found at 
the bottom. The spear appears in some cases to have been seven, 
or even eight, feet long. A remarkable spear-head, with four 
edges, was found in the Saxon cemetery at Fairford. The spear- 
heads are usually from ten to fifteen inches long. Arrow-heads 
are occasionally found, but they are rare. 



chap, xyl] ANGLO-SAXON WEAPONS. 407 

The shield was generally laid flat over the middle of the corpse. 
It has been traced in some instances to have been round, and 
not of large dimensions. It was usually formed of wood, 
generally of the linden tree, which was of a yellow tint. Hence, 
the poem of Beowulf speaks of "the broad shield, yellow-rimmed," 
and it is sometimes called a " war-board " (liilde-bord). In one 
instance we are told — 

he seized his shield, 

the yellow linden-wood. — Beowulf, line 5215. 

The wood of the shield seems to have been sometimes covered 
with leather ; and mention is made in Beowulf of a shield of iron. 
It may be suspected that the round metal shields which have 
been pronounced to be British, are really Saxon. The principal 
relic of the shield found in the graves, is the iron boss wdiich 
occupied the centre externally, and which has usually attached to 
it all or some of the rivets which fixed it to the wood. The usual 
form of the boss is that of a small basin, tapering at the bottom 
to a point, and ending in a knob. Some of our old writers on 
antiquities have indeed taken the Saxon bosses for basins, and 
others have thought them to be skull- caps, so little observation 
was made on the circumstances of their discovery. Fig. 1, in our 
plate of Anglo-Saxon weapons, is also rather a common form of 
the boss of the shield. The three other bosses represented in 
the plate are unusual forms ; fig. 2 was found in a barrow on the 
Breach clowns, and is in the collection of Lord Londesborough, 
and fig. 3 w T as found at Sittingbourne, also in Kent. Fig. 4 is a 
very singular boss, which was found among Anglo-Saxon graves 
near Driffield, in the East Riding of Yorkshire ; the boss itself is 
not of an unusual form, but it has four circular discs arranged round 
it, as represented in the cut. 

Strips of iron, formed into different shapes, but evidently designed 
to be held by the hand, are often found in Saxon graves, among the 
remains of the shield, and were supposed by Douglas to be the braces 
of bows. This explanation, however, had been long doubted, when, 
in opening the graves at Osengal,in Thanet,a more careful observa- 
tion cleared up the mystery. In every instance, the article referred 
to was found in the centre of the shield, just under the boss, and 
in such a position that there could be no longer any doubt of its 
having been the handle of the shield. Two of these handles, 



408 THE SAXONS. [chap. xiv. 

from the graves at Osengal, are represented in the annexed cut. 
The lower example retains the rivets by which it was fixed to the 
wood of the shield, in which there was, no doubt, in the middle, 




Braces of Anglo-Saxon Shields. 

a hole to receive the hand, which was covered by the boss on the 
outside. We thus learn the importance of very careful observation, 
even of the minute circumstances connected with antiquarian 
discoveries. 

The discovery of buckles of different forms shows clearly that 
the swords and knives were suspended to a girdle drawn tight 
round the body. Two such buckles, from the cemetery at 
Osengal, are represented in figs. 11 and 12 of our plate at p. 404. 
These buckles are often highly ornamented, and they are some- 
times enamelled. We find very little traces of dress in the 
graves, though a fragment of the material found sometimes im- 
pressed in decomposed metal, seems to show that it was generally 
of rather coarse texture. We know from passages in the poem 
of Beowulf, that the early Saxons wore armour, apparently com- 
posed of rings, but no very distinct traces of it have yet been 
found in the graves. This may, perhaps, be accounted for by the 
rapid decomposition which articles made of iron undergo in the 
ground. Perhaps, moreover, it was not the custom to equip the 
body in armour and helmet when it was buried. The ribs, or 
framework, in bronze, of a defensive cap of some kind or other, 
supposed to be Saxon, were discovered on a skull dug up at 
Leckhampton Hill, near Cheltenham, and are preserved in the 
museum of that town. A framework of a helmet, not very unlike 
that at Cheltenham, was taken by Mr. Bateman from an Anglo- 
Saxon barrow in Derbyshire, and his description of it is sufficiently 
curious to be given in his own words. It had been formed, he 
says, "of ribs of iron, radiating from the crown of the head, and 
coated with narrow plates of horn, running in a diagonal direction 



chap, xiv.] ANGLO-SAXON ARMOUR. 409 

from the ribs, so as to form a herring-bone pattern ; the ends 
were secured by strips of horn, radiating in like manner as the 
iron ribs, to which they were rivetted at intervals of about an inch 
and a half; all the rivets had ornamented heads of silver on the 
outside, and on the front rib is a small cross of the same metal. 
Upon the top or crown of the helmet, is an elongated oval brass 
plate, upon which stands the figure of an animal, carved in iron, 
now much rusted, but still a very good representation of a pig ; 
it has bronze eyes. There are also many smaller decorations, 
abounding in rivets, all which have pertained to the helmet, 
but which it is impossible to assign to their proper places, as is 
also the case with some small iron buckles." Mr. Bateman adds, 
that there was found with the helmet a mass of chainwork, 
formed of " a large quantity of links, of two descriptions, attached 
to each other by small rings, half an inch in diameter ; one kind 
is flat and lozenge-shaped, about one inch and a half in length ; 
those of the other sort are all of one pattern, but of different 
lengths, varying from four to ten inches ; they are simply pieces 
of square rod iron, with perforated ends, through which are passed 
the rings connecting them with the diamond-shaped links. Along 
with them was a six-pronged instrument, similar to a hay-fork, 
with the difference that the fang, which, in a fork, is inserted 
into the shaft, is in this instance flattened and folded over, so as 
to form a small loop, as for suspension. All the iron articles, 
except this and the helmet, were amalgamated together from the 
effects of rust; they also present traces of cloth over a great part 
of their surface ; it is therefore not improbable that they may 
have originally constituted some kind of defensive armour, by 
being sewn upon or within a doublet." Mr. Roach Smith has 
quoted, in illustration of the swine or boar on this helmet, 
passages from Tacitus, and from the Anglo-Saxon poem of 
Beowulf, which show that that animal was a favourite ensign on 
the helmets and arms of the ancient Saxons. * 

Another weapon found in Anglo-Saxon graves, though it is of 
very rare occurrence, must not be overlooked. This is the axe, 
which seems to have been more common among the Franks, 
than among the Saxons in England. The lower of the two 



* Cuts of these helmets will be found in Mr. Roach Smith's " Collectanea/' 
vol. ii., p. 238. 



410 



THE SAXONS. 



TCHAP. XIV. 



\ — 



examples given in the accompanying cut, was taken from a Saxon 
barrow in the isle of Thanet, and is preserved in the museum of 
Mr. Eolfe ; the axe represented in the upper figure was found in 
a grave of this same period, from a cemetery discovered at Selzen, 
in Rhenish Hesse, * and is here given for the sake of comparison. 
Their identity of form is remarkable. A similarly shaped axe 

was found in a grave at iVsh, near 
Canterbury ; Mr. Roach Smith 
possesses one which was obtained 
in Berkshire ; and two or three 
others have been found in different 
parts of England. 

It will be seen by what has 
been already said, and by the ex- 
amples given, that the weapons of 
our Anglo-Saxon forefathers were 
purely Teutonic, and that so far 
they had borrowed nothing of 
the Eomans. In war, they fought 
as Saxons ; and it was only 
when they came in social contact with the people who had pre- 
ceded them, that they felt the superiority of the Romans in 
the arts of peace. The personal ornaments found in our Anglo- 
Saxon barrows are numerous, especially in Kent, where the 
discoveries hitherto made show a greater degree of wealth and 
refinement than in the other Saxon or Anglian kingdoms. Of 
all the articles of personal ornament found in the Anglo-Saxon 
interments, the fibulae are the most remarkable, and at the same 
time the most characteristic ; and they have a peculiar interest from 
the circumstance that there are several distinct varieties, and that 
the difference arose evidently not from individual caprice, but from 
the distinctive fashions of the different races who came into the 
island. They help to corroborate the statements of the early 
Anglo-Saxon annalists of the positions of these various tribes in 
Britain. We have given examples of these different varieties in 
the accompanying plate. 




Saxon Axes. 



The first and the richest variety of these ornaments are the 



* A very interesting account of this cemetery, which resembled closely the 
Anglo-Saxon cemeteries in England, was published at Maintz, in 1848, by the 
brothers W. and L. Lindenschmit. 



chap, xiv.] ANGLO-SAXON FIBULAE. 411 

circular fibulae found in the barrows in Kent, of which some very fine 
examples are preserved in the museums of Lord Londesborough, 
Dr. Faussett, Mr. Kolfe, and other collectors. They are more 
usually of gold than any other material, are generally ornamented 
with filigree work, and are set with stones, usually garnets, or with 
glass or vitreous pastes, and sometimes with enamel. One of the 
finest examples of this class of fibulae was found a few years ago at 
Sittingbourne, in Kent. The form of the ornament was that of a 
double star, set with garnets, or coloured glass, upon chequered 
foils of gold. The rays of the inner star were of a blue stone. 
Between the rays of the larger star were four studs, with a ruby 
in each, surrounded with a circle of garnets, the spaces between 
being filled up with gold filigree. 

A much diminished sketch of this fibula is given in the upper 
figure to the left in our plate. In another very handsome round 
fibula in the collection of Lord Londesborough, found in a barrow 
at Wingham, in Kent, the outer rim is bronze, but all the rest gold, 
set with garnets and blue stones, as usual, over thin gold foil, which 
was indented with cross lines, to give greater brilliancy; the 
spaces between the limbs of the cross or flower formed by the 
stones was here also filled up with the twists of gold filigree, 
which are so common in Anglo-Saxon jewellery. These round 
fibulae appear to have been worn by ladies, and from the position 
in which they are found they appear to have been placed on the 
breast. They were evidently peculiar to the people of Kent and 
to the kindred inhabitants of the isle of Wight, where examples 
have been found. It is very unusual to find them in other parts 
of England ; though a very rich gold fibula of this description was 
found some years ago at Sutton, near Woodbridge, in Suffolk, 
which was covered with filigree work, and had been set with 
stones and enamel.* 

The second class of Anglo-Saxon fibulae present a totally 
different type ; they are generally made of bronze or brass, though 
they appear in almost every instance to have been gilt. They 
have been usually termed cross-shaped, a term which is not 
alwavs correct, and we must be careful not to imagine that the 



* This "beautiful fibula is given in colours, and of the size of the original, with 
several other examples of the round Kentish fibula, in a plate in the " Archaeological 
Album." Other examples will be found in Douglas's " Nenia." 



412 THE SAXONS. [chap. xiv. 

approach to the form of the cross has any connexion with Chris- 
tianity, for there can he no douht that all these barrows belonged 
to the pagan Saxons. Several examples of this class of fibulas 
are given in our plate. The upper one to the right was found 
at Ingarsby, ten miles from Leicester. It has been broken, 
and, as will be seen by comparison with the other examples, the 
upper part only remains. When perfect, it must have been very 
large, for the part here represented is five inches in length. 
The figure immediately below it represents one of this class of 
fibulas, of a rather different type, found at Stowe Heath, adjoining 
to Icklingham, in Suffolk. The original is six inches in length, 
and it is ornamented, like others of the same class, with attempts 
at representing monstrous heads. The ornamentation of the 
large fibulas of this class is often very elaborate, though rude in 
character. The fibulas of this form are found in large quantities 
in the counties of Derby, Leicester, Nottingham, Northampton, 
and thence through Cambridgeshire, Suffolk, and Norfolk, as well 
as in Yorkshire. They were evidently peculiar to the Angles, 
who formed the population of Mercia, East-x\nglia, and Nor- 
thumbria. As shown in the examples just described, some of the 
more ornamental ones were of very large dimensions; but others, 
and that by much the most numerous class, are smaller, and 
plainer. The two examples given in our plate, between the 
circular fibulas, both from Stowe Heath, in Suffolk, are 
types of rather a numerous class of the smaller fibulas, found 
chiefly in Mercia and East-Anglia. Many similar fibulas 
were recently found by Mr. Neville in the Anglo-Saxon 
cemetery at Wilbraham, in Cambridgeshire. Sometimes in 
these smaller fibulas, the head was formed into plain trefoil, 
or clover leaf, as in the example found in Yorkshire, which is 
given in fig. 1, in the cut in the next page. Fibulas of this form 
were found in the Anglo-Saxon cemetery at Barrow Furlong 
in Northamptonshire, described in the thirty- third volume of 
the Archasologia. Others with square heads were found in 
the last-mentioned cemetery, one of which is represented in 
fig. 2, in our cut. This class of fibulas is found much more 
rarely out of the Anglian districts. Some have been found in 
Kent, differing a little in form and ornament, and by no means 
so common as the circular ones. We find also in Kent a fibula 
of this class, but of a peculiar pattern, having its head semicircular 



CHAP. XIV.] 



ANGLO-SAXON FIBULA. 



413 



One of these, found near the turnpike road at Folkestone-hill, 
between Folkestone and Dover, is represented in fig. 3 in the 
annexed cut. The body was of bronze-gilt, the central band had 
been ornamented with slices of garnet, one of which still remains 
at the bottom in a silver rim ; and the projecting buttons in the 
upper part had also been set with stones, or with some kind of 




Anglo-Saxon Fibulae. 

glass. A fibula exactly similar to this was found at Osengal in 
Thanet, and is now in the collection of Mr. Rolfe. Precisely the 
same type has been found in Germany and in France. In fact, 
the class of fibulae we are now describing is that usually found 
in the graves of the same period on the Continent, especially in 
those of the Franks in Gaul. 

The third variety of Anglo-Saxon fibulas is, as far as has yet 
been discovered, peculiar to the counties of Gloucester, Oxford, and 
Buckingham; whether they belonged to the West-Saxons, or to 
the Mercians, it is difficult to say, as they lay on the borders of 
the two kingdoms, but very little accurate observation has yet 
been made of Anglo-Saxon remains found in the purely Saxon 
districts. These fibulas, which are also of brass or bronze, are 
circular, and deeply concave, or, rather, formed like a saucer. 
The rim, or side, is usually plain, but the flat bottom is 
ornamented with Saxon tracery. The example represented in 
our plate at p. 411, is now in the museum of Mr. Neville, who 
bought it at the sale at Stowe, in Buckinghamshire ; it is said to 
have been found with a skeleton at Ashendon, in that county, 



414 THE SAXONS. [chap. xiv. 

along with a smaller fibula of the same description, which is also 
in Mr. Neville's collection.* In Mr. Neville's example, which is, 
I believe, in this respect unique, the centre and the four points of 
the cross of the ornament, are set with coloured glass on gold 
foil, like the circular fibulae of Kent, from which, in other respects, 
it differs widely. It is much larger than the Kentish fibulae, 
measuring in diameter nearly three inches and a half. Others of 
equal and of smaller dimensions have been found in the counties 
above-mentioned. The field is always covered with ornamentation 
of the same class, in some instances with rude figures of faces 
and animals, and resembling in style and character that of the 
cross-shaped fibulae. The only instance I know at present of the 
discovery of one of these fibulae out of the counties mentioned, 
occurred in an Anglo- Saxon burial-place in Yorkshire. 

Other small circular fibulae of a much plainer and less charac- 
teristic description are also found with Saxon remains in different 
parts of the island. Sometimes they consist of a circular plate, 
at others of a mere circular rim, or flat ring, the material being 
generally of bronze. They are sometimes ornamented in the 
style of the fields of the saucer-shaped fibulae, while in many 
instances they are merely marked with small circles, or lines, or 
are left quite plain. Fibulae of more fanciful forms are also 
found with Anglo-Saxon remains, and not unfrequently shaped 
into the rude figure of a bird. Circular fibulae, apparently of the 
early Anglo-Saxon period, made of lead, have also been found, 
hut they are very rare, and possess many peculiarities. Of three 
which I have examined, one was found in Yorkshire, and the 
other two in London. The first is in the collection of Mr. Har- 
grove, of York ; it is a thin circular plate of lead, exactly an inch 
and a half in diameter, ornamented with three concentric circles, 
and a rude figure in the centre. The outer circle, or rim, is of a 
chain or cable pattern; the two inner circles are hatched in 
square compartments ; while the central figure was intended to 
represent a dragon, with its tail twisted and inserted in its mouth. 
In one of the London specimens, the field in the centre, which is 
raised above the rest, bears the figure of a lion ; it is surrounded 

* It is a proof of the low state of antiquarian science in England till a very 
recent date, that, while this fibula was in the collection at Stowe, it was con- 
sidered to he one of a pair of scales, and as such it was described in the sale 
catalogue. 



chap, xiv.] PERSONAL ORNAMENTS. 415 

with a series of concentric rings of formed ovals and circles of 
various sizes. The other London example, which is in the museum 
of Mr. Roach Smith, is still more curious, from the circumstance 
that the ornament of the central field is made of a confused mass 
of letters, exactly resembling those marked on the earlier Anglo- 
Saxon coins. 

We have no very distinct notion of the particular use of the 
Anglo-Saxon fibulas in attaching the dress, though the larger and 
more ornamental ones were probably employed in fastening a mantle. 
The Kentish circular fibulae are usually found on the breast, and 
the others are often in front of the body, somewhat nearer the 
girdle. In East-Anglia and Mercia, the cross-shaped fibulae, and, 
more to the south-west, the saucer-shaped fibulae, are often found 
in pairs, either over the breast, or, especially in the case of the 
saucer-shaped fibulae, on the shoulders. It may be observed, that 
the buckle of the belt or girdle is often ornamented in the same 
style as the fibulae, and sometimes it bears some resemblance in 
form to the cross-shaped variety. The use of other personal 
ornaments is more exactly defined by their form and position. 
Amongst these the most remarkable and numerous are rings, 
armlets, ear-rings, hair-pins, pendents to the neck, and beads. 

Eings and bracelets are not found so abundantly as we might 
expect from the manner in which they are spoken of in the old 
Anglo-Saxon poetry, and they are seldom of better material than 
bronze. Finger-rings of silver have been found in Kent, but, 
from their character, it is not improbable that they were of Roman 
workmanship. In the cemetery at Barrow Furlong, in North- 
amptonshire, only one ring was found, which was on the finger- 
bone of one of the skeletons ; it was made simply of a bit of 
silver wire, bent into a circle, and tied at the two ends by twisting 
the wire. In the graves at Fairford, in Gloucestershire, were found 
several rings of bronze, all of them unornamented. A rather 
massive bronze spiral ring, perhaps of Roman workmanship, was 
found in a Saxon grave, in the same county. The Saxon ladies 
were evidently more anxious to adorn their heads and necks, than 
their hands and arms. Ear-rings are not very uncommon, but 
they are extremely varied in form. Sometimes they consist, like 
the finger-rings, merely of a bit of silver-wire, either bent 
into a plain ring, or twisted in a spiral form. In the Anglo- 
Saxon cemetery at Chavenage, in Gloucestershire, was found a 



416 THE SAXONS. [chap. xiv. 

pair of ear-rings, formed of thin plates of silver, shaped like 
crescents, the ends drawn out fine and twisted together. Hair- 
pins are common, and resemhle in character those of the Eomans. 
They are usually of bronze, a metal the use of which the 
Saxons probably derived from the people on whose lands they 
came to reside. They are often ornamented, and in some cases 
they seem to have been enamelled. A hair-pin with the head set 
with jewels, was found in a barrow at Wringham, in Kent. A very 
highly ornamented hair-pin, of bronze gilt, found in a Saxon grave 
at Gilton, in East Kent, and now preserved in the Canterbury 
museum, is engraved in the second volume of the " Collectanea 
Antiqua" of Mr. Roach Smith, who considers it to be of 
late Roman workmanship. These pins were no doubt intended, 
like the Roman ones, for fastening up the hair behind the head. 
The greater number are mere pins of bronze, or sometimes of 
bone ; but it is remarkable that these plain hair-pins have almost 
always a ring at the top, or, at least, the head pierced for one, 
which was, no doubt, intended for attaching some part of the head- 
dress with which we are unacquainted. The jewellery suspended 
round the neck was often rich and highly ornamented. A 
beautiful necklace of stones set in gold, pendent to a gold band, 
was found by Mr. Bateman, in an Anglo-Saxon barrow in Derby- 
shire. Sometimes a gold ornament in the form of a cross, or a 
circular bulla, or, in place of these, a gold Roman or Merovingian 
coin, w 7 as suspended to the necklace. Examples of all these 
ornaments are found abundantly in the Kentish barrows, but they 
are rare in other parts of the kingdom. There can be no doubt 
of their being of native workmanship, and they show us to what 
a high state of perfection the art of the goldsmith was carried 
among our forefathers at this early period. At a later date, 
the Anglo-Saxons were celebrated throughout Europe for the 
beauty of their jewellery. A poem on the various fortunes of 
men, in the valuable collection of Anglo- Saxon poetry called the 
Exeter Book, describes the high consideration in which the 
Saxon goldsmith was held : — 

For one a wondrous skill 

in goldsmith's art 

is provided, 

full oft he decorates 

and well adorns 



chap, xiv.] BEADS. 417 

a powerful king's nobles, 
and he to him gives broad 
land in recompense. 

Beads are found in the Anglo-Saxon barrows in great variety, 
and they present a mixture of the common Roman types and of 
others which were doubtless of Saxon manufacture. Perhaps the 
Roman manufactories of beads continued to exist after the settle- 
ment of the Saxons ; but whether this were the case or not, it is 
certain that almost every variety of Roman beads are found in the 
Saxon interments. The Roman beads are generally of glass, 
while of those which are purely Anglo-Saxon, a large proportion 
are of terra-cotta or earthenware, and these are sometimes incrusted 
wdth vitreous substances. The Saxons introduced the same kind 
of ornament into their earthenware beads which had been used by 
the Romans in beads of glass, and we find them often tastefully 
variegated with stripes of different colours. These colours are 
often very brilliant. Two examples of these striated earthenware 
beads from the cemetery at Osengal, in Thanet, are given in the 
annexed cut. Other substances used very extensively by the 




Beads from OsengaL, 

Anglo-Saxons in the manufacture of beads, were amethystine 
quartz, which is of a lilac colour, and amber. Beads appear 
to have been worn round the neck very generally by persons of 
both sexes ; and it is probable that they were not only considered 
as personal ornaments, but that they were looked upon with a 
superstitious feeling as preservatives against danger, and especially 
against witchcraft. This was peculiarly the case with amber, 
which, according to the belief of the ancients, protected the 
person who bore it about him against the evil spirit. Hence we 
find continual instances of interments in which the deceased had 
merely one bead of amber attached to the neck, and sometimes it 



418 THE SAXONS. [chap. xiv. 

appears to have been simply placed in the grave by the side of 
his head. The lumps of amber were generally made into beads 
by drilling a hole through them, without attempting to shape them 
into regular form. 

At the girdle of the Saxon lady was suspended a bunch of 
various small implements, answering to what in modern times is 
called a chatelaine, and which appears to have been usually buried 
with the person to whom it belonged. These articles appear 
to have been very numerous, but, unfortunately, from the cir- 
cumstance of many of them being small, and of iron, which 
decomposes rapidly, they are often reduced to mere shapeless bits 
of rust. Sometimes, however, they are more perfect, and articles 
of bronze are always better preserved. We usually find among 
these articles a small knife — sometimes more than one — and a 
pair of scissors. The scissors, or rather shears, are almost always 
of the description represented in our cut on page 342, which were 
no doubt borrowed from the Komans ; but one or two instances 
have been met with in Anglo-Saxon barrows of scissors of the 
same construction as those used at the present day. Scissors of 
this latter description were found in the Saxon burial-place at 
Driffield, in Yorkshire. Needles and pins, made of bronze or 
bone, are sometimes found ; they had probably been placed in a 




Anglo-Saxon Tweezers. 

case or sheath. Of articles of the toilet found attached to the 
chatelaine, if we may adopt the word, the one of most frequent 
occurrence is a pair of bronze tweezers, used, no doubt, for 
extracting superfluous hairs from the body. This instrument is 
so perfectly identical in form and character with the Eoman 
tweezers, that we might suppose it to be a mere relic of the Roman 
period preserved by one of the Saxon conquerors, if it were not of 
such common occurrence in Anglo-Saxon graves, that it must 
have been an article in general use. One of these bronze 
tweezers, from the cemetery at Osengal, is represented in our cut. 
A number of small implements resembling bodkins, are often 



CHAP. XIV.] 



ANGLOSAXOX CHATELAIXE. 



419 



found attached together by a ring ; some of them seem to have 
been intended for tooth-picks and others for ear-picks, and 
they all show that the Anglo-Saxon 
ladies paid considerable attention to 
personal cleanliness. As I have be- 
fore observed, it would be impos- 
sible, from the state in which they 
are generally found, to particularise 
all the various articles which the 
Anglo-Saxon lady carried at her girdle. 
Some are almost inexplicable. The 
three implements suspended by two 
rings, represented in the accompanying 
cut, were found in the cemetery at 
Osengal, and are now in the collection 
of Mr. Rolfe. The only explanation 
that can be offered is, that they may 
have been latch-keys ; but I believe 
that nothing exactly similar to them 
has been found elsewhere to assist in 
explaining them, though they may 
be compared with the Roman latch 
keys which we have given at p. 334. 
Another class of articles, found always 
with the articles hung to the lady's 
girdle, and invariably in pairs, has 
furnished a puzzle to antiquaries. 

Several pairs of them were found in the recently excavated Anglo- 
Saxon cemetery at Wilbraham, in Cambridgeshire, in most cases 
attached together by a ring, or small frame, at the top. One of 
these is given in our next cut, of the form which seems to have 
been most common. The extremities of others were of the form 
represented by the figure at the side. A number of other 
examples, found at Stowe Heath, in Suffolk ; near Swaffham, in 
Norfolk ; at Scaleby, near Caistor, in Lincolnshire ; and at an 
unascertained locality in Leicestershire ; are given in the second 
volume of Mr. Roach Smith's " Collectanea." They seem to be con- 
fined to the Anglian districts, and I am not aware of any example 
found in Kent ; but, curiously enough, they are not uncommon in 
the Frankish cemeteries in France. They have puzzled the few 

EE 2 




Anglo-Saxon Latch-keys (]) 



420 



THE SAXONS. 



[chap. XIV. 



antiquaries, who have observed them, extremely. They were sup- 
posed at first to be latch-keys, but their being found in pairs, 

and the thinness of the metal 
(bronze), seemed to militate against 
this explanation, which was quite 
exploded when other examples 
were found with the ends per- 
forated for small rings, and in 
some the rings were still found 
in the perforations. The most 
probable explanation seems now 
to be, that each pair either formed 
the framework of a bag or purse ; 
or that they belonged to a frame, 
to which the various articles the 
lady carried by her side were 
attached. In some cases they are 
slightly ornamented. 

Among other articles of the 
toilette, we must not forget to 
mention combs, which have been 
found in several instances in 
Anglo-Saxon graves. A double- 
toothed comb, of bone, with rivets 
of iron, was found in an urn in 
the cemetery at Barrow Furlong, in Northamptonshire ; and a 
single one, of the same material, was found in a grave in 
Kent. 

Remains of various smaller articles are found scattered about 
the Anglo-Saxon graves, many of which, made of perishable 
materials, are only indicated by decayed matter. Thus we often 
trace the place once occupied by a small box, or coffer, and find 
hinges, or clasps, or metal guards, which have belonged to it. 
A very remarkable small bronze coffer, or box, was found in the 
Anglo-Saxon cemetery at Stroud, in Kent. It was made of two 
thin plates of bronze, riveted together, and bound round at the 
lower part with a narrow band of the same metal ; on one side 
was a ring, which appeared to have been intended for hanging it 
to the girdle. It was stamped with Christian figures and emblems, 
and was, doubtless, of foreign manufacture ; perhaps obtained in 




Articles from Wilbraham. 



CHAP. XIV.] 



ANGLO-SAXON POTTEEY. 



421 



barter or in war, for the interment was clearly a pagan one.* It 
is unnecessary to attempt an enumeration of all the small miscel- 
laneous articles found in the Anglo-Saxon graves. In one of 
those, at Osengal, a pair of compasses was found, and in another 
lay a pair of scales, the scales of which were very neatly made of 
thin bronze ; along with them were the weights, which were 
formed of Roman coins, carefully adjusted by rubbing away the 
surface. It is not unusual to find in the Anglo-Saxon graves in 
Kent, sea-shells, and even snail-shells, and we sometimes meet with 
cowries, which must have been brought from the East. These, 
with the occurrence of Byzantine coins, and articles like the coffer 
described above, show to what extent the early xAnglo-Saxon settlers 
held communication with foreign and even distant nations. 

The larger portion of the pottery found in the Anglo-Saxon 
graves in Kent, is Roman, often cups and paterae, sometimes in 
fragments, of the red Samian ware. The pottery of Saxon manu- 
facture found in this country occurs chiefly in the cemeteries where 




Anglo-Saxon Pottery. 

cremation was practised, that is in Mercia and East Anglia, and 
consists of burial urns. These were long classed indiscriminately 
as British, and it is not till lately that their distinctive charac- 
teristics have been pointed out. The cut given above presents 

* This very curious relic is engraved in Mr. Roach Smith's " Collectanea 
Antiqua," vol. ii. plate 36. 



422 THE SAXONS. [chap. xiv. 

five examples of Anglo-Saxon earthenware vessels. The two to 
the left, taken from a Saxon cemetery at Kingston, near Derby, 
are the ordinary types of burial urns found in interments of this 
period in England. They are usually made with the hand, without 
the use of the lathe, of a dark-coloured clay, and are not w 7 ell 
baked ; their colour is generally a dark brown, passing either to a 
black or to a dark green tint. Their distinguishing characteristics 
are projecting knobs or bosses at the sides, peculiar zigzag patterns, 
and a still more usual ornamentation of circles or squares, which 
have the appearance of having been stamped with the end of a 
notched stick. The small unornamented vessel on the right was 
found in the same cemetery, but without bones, and it was pro- 
bably a cup for domestic purposes ; it exactly resembles one found 
in a grave in Kent. The long-necked 

# ampulla in the middle was found in an 
Anglo-Saxon grave in Kent. The vessel 
at the bottom, to the right, from the same 
cemetery at Kingston, was also used as a 
burial urn. An Anglo-Saxon burial urn, of 
a somewhat different pattern, but similar 
in general character, is represented in the 
annexed cut. It was found by Mr. Bloxam, 
at Chestersover, in Warwickshire, filled 
Anglo-Saxon Urn. w ^ n asnes ' an ^ accompanied with an iron 

sword, a spear-head, and other articles, 
all undoubtedly Saxon. The articles constantly found with the 
urns of this class, leave no room for doubt that they have been 
correctly appropriated to the early Saxon settlers in our island ; 
and this appropriation is corroborated in a very remarkable 
manner by discoveries made on the continent. In 1848, two 
German antiquaries, the brothers Lindenschmit, published an 
account of the opening of an ancient Teutonic cemetery of the 
pagan period, at Selzen, in Rhenish Hesse, the articles found in 
which presented exactly the same character as those in our Anglo- 
Saxon barrows. There was a similar mixture of the two kinds of 
interment, but the practice of burying the body entire seemed to 
prevail. The pottery was of precisely the same character ; it was 
similar in form, and was ornamented with the same bosses on the 
sides, and the same impressed notches as in the Anglo-Saxon pottery 
described above. For the sake of comparison, four examples of 



chap, xiv.] CINERARY URNS.— DRINKING-GLASSES. 



423 



the pottery from Selzen are given in the annexed cut : the two to 
the left are cinerary urns, like those found in Derbyshire. 




Germano-Saxon Pottery. 

The Anglo-Saxon glass, which is not uncommon, differs from 
the Roman in being thinner, not so fine in texture, and more 
subject to that kind of decomposition, which destroys its trans- 




parency, and gives it a variegated tint. It is probable that the 
Saxon glass-workers derived the art from their Roman predeces- 
sors, and they certainly possessed very great skill, although the 



424 



THE SAXONS. 



[chap. XIV. 



form and ornament of their work differed entirely from Roman 
work. The glass vessels found in Anglo-Saxon graves are generally 
drinking cups, the forms of which will be best understood by the 
cut on the preceding page. When ornamented, they are usually 
ribbed, or striated. The forms were evidently derived from the 
imitation of drinking-horns. * The examples given in our cut 
were all taken from barrows in East Kent, and are in the collec- 
tions of Lord Londesborough and Mr. Eolfe. The ornamentation 
answers sufficiently well to the epithet of twisted, which is applied in 
Anglo-Saxon poetry to drinking- cups. Thus in Beowulf (line 983), 
we are told that — 

the thane observed his office., 
he that in his hand bare 
the twisted ale-cup. 

The small cup-shaped glass vessel at the bottom of our cut is also 
the type of a class of not uncommon occurrence in Kent. A re- 
markable characteristic of the early Anglo-Saxon glass manufacture 




Anglo-Saxon Glass vessels. 

is an ornamentation formed by separate threads of glass twisted 
round the vessel after it had been formed ; and sometimes of large 
knobs added to the glass, these latter assuming very singular shapes. 
It is difficult to say how far this kind of ornament was derived from 

* It will be observed that these drinking cups are so made that they could not 
stand upright ; each guest was expected to drink his glass off at a draught. It is 
said that this custom of making drinking-cups which would not stand, in order to 
compel the drinkers to empty it at once, was the origin of the modern name of 
tvmblers, given to glasses which are not now placed in the same predicament. 



CHAP. XIV. 



DRIXKING-VESSELS. 



425 



the late Roman period, but there is in the little museum at Lewes, 
in Sussex, a glass ampulla, said to have been found among purely 
Eoman remains, which is ornamented with the same strings twisted 
round the neck. I give, on the preceding page, two examples 
of Anglo-Saxon glass vessels, with these singular ornamenta- 
tions. The one with knobs attached was found at Reculver, 
in Kent, and is now preserved in the museum at Canterbury : it 
is about six inches high, of a colour varying from olive green to 
yellow (the variations perhaps caused by decomposition), the pro- 
jections being of a dark green — it is also ornamented with the 
strings mentioned above. The other vessel represented in the 
cut was found at Ash, in Kent, in 1849, and is in the collection 
of Mr. Rolfe ; it is a curious specimen of the application of the 
thread ornament. Other examples of glass vessels, resembling 
the first of these, with the projecting claws, have been found in 
different parts of Saxon England. One is given in Mr. Wylie's 
account of the Fairford graves, in Gloucestershire, where it w r as 
found. Another was found in a Saxon grave in Hampshire, and 




Germano-Saxon Drinking vessels. 



a fourth at Coombe, in East Kent, Another was found at Castle 
Eden, in Durham, and was engraved in the fifteenth volume of the 
Archseologia. 

It is a very remarkable circumstance, and shows us the neces- 
sity of comparing the antiquities of cognate races, that one of 
these cups with the projecting claws, so similar to those found in 
England that we might suppose it had come from the same work- 
shop, was found in a grave in the ancient cemetery at Selzen, in 



426 THE SAXONS. [chap. xiv. 

Rhenish Hesse. * To show the close similarity between the glass 
vessels found in the Selzen graves and those of the Anglo-Saxons, 
which is the best evidence we could have of their purely Teutonic 
character, I give in the last page three drinking-glasses copied from 
the work of the brothers Lindenschmit. One of the cup-shaped 
glasses, like those in our Saxon graves, with two earthenware jugs, 
also from Selzen, are given in our cut on the present page. These 
two vessels are evidently the original type of our modern pitcher. 




Germano-Saxon Pottery and Glass. 

They are not often found in Anglo-Saxon barrows, but examples 
have occurred, and others probably have been passed over unob- 
served. A good specimen is preserved in the museum of Dover; 
it is said to have been dug up in that neighbourhood. Mr. Roach 
Smith extracted fragments of another from a barrow on the 
summit of the hills behind Folkestone. 

Although there is no doubt much of purely Teutonic character 
in the ornamentation of the pottery and glass, and of many of 
the other articles manufactured by the Anglo-Saxons, it is pro- 
bable that much of it also originated in attempts, more or less 
rude, to imitate that which they saw on Roman work. In some 
of the jewellery we observe an evident design to imitate late 
Roman and Byzantine ornaments, and perhaps if we compared 
more closely the ornamental pottery, we should find it was the 

* Mr. Roach Smith has given engravings of this Selzen specimen, along with 
the different examples found in England, in his " Collectanea Antiqua," vol. ii. 



CHAP. XIV.] 



ANGLO-SAXON BOWLS. 



427 



same. This is observable more distinctly on the Frankish pottery, 

which differs somewhat in character from that of the Anglo-Saxons. 

The accompanying cut represents a prevailing type of the Frankish 

burial urns, which have often, however, much more ornament. 

The ornament here is evidently 

a rude imitation of that found on 

the Roman red Samian wares ; 

it may be compared with that of 

some late Roman pottery found 

in Britain, of which w r e have 

already given a cut at p. 221, 

and also with the ornament of a 

Roman altar given in p. 289. 

The comparison of these examples 

shows how an elegant ornament, 

in passing through, successive 

imitations, degenerates into a 

very rude one. 

There are two classes of house- 
hold utensils found frequently 

in Anglo-Saxon interments, which are worthy of particular notice. 
Bowls of bronze, highly gilt, are met with in the cemeteries in 
Kent, and generally so elegant in form, that we can hardly 




A Frankish Urn. 




Anglo-Saxon Bowls. 

hesitate in looking upon them as the work of Roman manufac- 
turers. Three examples of these bowls are given in our cut, the 
first of which was found in a barrow at Wingham, in Kent; the 



428 



THE SAXONS. 



[chap. xiy. 



lower example was found at Bourne Park, near Canterbury; and 
the one in the middle, on Barham Downs. They are of different 
sizes, from five or six inches to thirteen in diameter. 

Another article, found very frequently in Anglo-Saxon graves, 
is a bucket, which generally retains sufficient proofs of having 
been more or less highly ornamented. 
These buckets are found in Anglo- 
Saxon cemeteries in all parts of 
England. Many of them have been 
found at different times in Kent, and 
traces of others, which had been formed 
of more perishable materials, have 
been met with. One found in a grave 
in Bourne Park, near Canterbury, 
had been of rather large dimensions ; 
the hoops only remained perfect, but 
they were of bronze, and very ele- 
gantly formed ; the lower hoop was a 
foot in diameter, the upper hoop 
ten inches, and the whole height of 
the bucket appeared to have been 
about a foot. The hoops are represented in the annexed cut 
as they must have stood on the wood, which had perished ; 
the hooked feet of the lower bronze hoop appear to have been 
intended to turn over the woodwork and hold it firm. The bucket 
on the right, in our next cut, was found in a grave on the Chatham 




Bucket from Bourne Park. 




AiiQ'lo-Saxon Buckets. 



lines, and is engraved in Douglas's " Nenia." It was made of 
iron and brass, and was, therefore, better preserved. This bucket 
was only seven and a half inches in height, by eight inches in 



CHAP. XIV.] 



BUCKET-FORMED VESSELS. 



429 



diameter. Buckets found in the East- Anglian cemeteries are 
often of still smaller dimensions. Several were found by Mr. 
Neville, at Wilbrakam, in Cambridgeshire. The bucket on the 
left in the last cut was found in a barrow near Marlborough, in 
Wiltshire, opened by Sir Richard Colt Hoare, who erroneously 
supposed it to be Roman. The metal hoops, in this case, were 
embossed or stamped with figures of animals. Our next cut 
represents one of these bucket-formed vessels found in a grave at 
Fairford, in Gloucestershire, formed as usual of wood, with brass 
hoops, and ornaments ; it was only four inches in diameter, and 
between three and four inches high. These buckets are, as far as 




Bucket from Fairford, 



I have observed, always found in the graves of men, and they 
were evidently vessels which served for something more than 
ignoble purposes. The only explanation I can suggest is, that they 
were for containing the ale, mead, or wine, which was to be 
served in the Saxon hall. They are probably the vessels alluded 
to in the words of the poem of Beowulf, which describes how 

cup-bearers gave 

the wine from wondrous vats. 

Beoiculf, line 2316. 

The Anglo-Saxon translation of the book of Judges, (vii., 20), 



430 THE SAXONS. [chap. xiv. 

rendered hydrias confregissent, by " to-brsecon ]?a bucas," they 
broke the buckets. A common name for this vessel, which was 
properly called hue, was cescen, signifying literally a vessel made 
of ash, the favourite wood of the Anglo-Saxons. 

Roman coins not unfrequently occur in Anglo-Saxon graves, and 
in some instances a single coin has been found, as though the 
deceased, or his relatives, had retained some of the older Koman 
customs. A few later Byzantine, and also Frankish, coins, have 
been found, but they are much rarer than the Roman coins, which 
no doubt, continued in circulation under the Saxons.'" The earlier 
history of the Anglo-Saxon coinage is very obscure. On many 
Roman sites, especially such as are known to have been occupied 
down to a very late period, are found very small coins in brass, 
which appear, from their rude character and imperfect design, to 
have been late imitations of the Roman coins of the size deno- 
minated third brass. These coins, from their diminutive size, are 
termed by numismatists minimi, and are supposed to have been 
struck during the period between the abandonment of the island 
by the imperial government, and the establishment of the Saxon 
kingdoms. Among the coins found of late years at Richborough, 
in Kent (RatupicB), are no less than two hundred of these minimi, 
which show that that post continued to be occupied as a place of 
importance during the period just mentioned. These coins were 
followed by a different coinage, which was undoubtedly Saxon, but 
which also was imitated from that of the Romans, and it is not 
improbable that the old minting establishments continued to exist. 
These early Saxon coins, for the classification of which very 
little has yet been done, are called sceattas. \ It is remarkable, 
that while the Roman minimi are all in brass, the sceattas are 
invariably in silver. The devices may generally be traced to be 
rude imitations of Roman types, especially of the coinage of 
Constantine and his family, which are found in great abundance 

* It is by no means uncommon to find coins, especially of gold, both Roman, 
Byzantine, and Merovingian, with loops attached to them, for the purpose of 
suspension as ornaments. It was a custom which prevailed among the 
Romans themselves. 

+ The sceattas were the common coins of the Anglo-Saxons at an early period ; 
and the name was often used as a general term for money. The word, in the 
singular, is sceat or sccet, and to pay your sceat, was literally to pay your reckoning. 
This has been by course of time corrupted into the modern ale-house phrase of 
paying your shot. 



CHAP. XIV.] 



EARLY ANGLO-SAXON COINS. 



431 



in this country. Of the two examples given in our cut, the upper 

has on one side a copy of a very common reverse of the coins of 

the Constantine period, which are usually classed under the head 

of urbs Roma, representing Romulus 

and Remus suckled by the wolf. The 

second has a head on one side, and on 

the other, a device which is probably 

copied from the altar which occurs on 

the coins of the Constantine family. 

Many are copied from the coins of 

Arcadius, Honorius, and others of that 

period. The sceattas have been found 

at Richborough, Reculver, and other 

places in East Kent, in considerable 

numbers, as well as in the north of England. They are met 

with occasionally in Anglo-Saxon barrows or graves, which fixes 

the period to which they belong. The mouldering remains of 

what appeared to have been a small purse, with four sceattas of 

silver, were found by the side of a skeleton in a barrow on the 

Breach Downs, in Kent. 




Anglo-Saxon Sceattas from 
Richborough. 



432 THE SAXONS. [chap. xv. 



CHAPTER XV. 

Anglo-Saxon Settlement — Division of the Land— Population of the Country and 
of the Towns — Continuance of the Roman Municipalities — Traces of Muni- 
cipal Privileges in the Anglo-Saxon Towns; Canterbury, Rochester, Dover, 
Exeter, London, 

The remains of our Anglo-Saxon forefathers, as described in the 
preceding chapter, present sufficient evidence that society then 
consisted of two very distinct elements : one purely Teutonic, the 
other derived from intercourse with the Roman population. The 
Teutonic settlers took possession of the land, which the various 
chiefs divided among themselves by lots; and it was held by a 
totally different tenure to that which existed under the imperial 
government. The characteristic of Teutonic society was a deeply 
implanted aristocracy, that of the heads of clans, or tribes, and 
there was very little tendency to the centralisation which was 
exhibited in the Roman imperial constitution. Each chief received 
his share of land, on which he settled with his household and 
followers, and which descended in his family as a freehold. We 
still trace these original allotments of land in the names of places 
in every part of England, which are composed of the patro- 
nymic of the family or race. Thus, when we find such a name 
as Birmingham, we may be sure that it was originally the ham, or 
residence, of the Beormingas, the descendants or clan of Beorm. 
Thus, we have Badlingham in Cambridgeshire, the seat of the 
Baedlingas ; Buckingham, of the Bucingas ; Warmingham, in 
Cheshire, of the Wearmingas ; Littlington, the tun or head resi- 
dence of the Lytlingas; Elvington, the seat of the Elfingas ; 
Killinghall, the hall of the Cylingas ; and a vast number of 
similar names. The family or clan did not always take its name 
from the chief who obtained the allotment of land ; it was often 



chap, xv.] ANGLO-SAXON SETTLEMENT. 433 

but a branch of a much older family in the land from which the 
settler came. Hence we find the same patronymics in distant parts 
of England, which would seem to indicate that different members 
of the same original family had joined in various separate expe- 
ditions to Britain, and it is still more curious that this identity 
of name is found in districts peopled severally by the different 
races, Angles, or Saxons, or Jutes. This admits of two explana- 
tions : it shows the close relationship between the three races 
themselves ; and it proves, probably, that when a great chieftain 
of one race, an Angle, for instance, planned an expedition to 
Britain, subordinate leaders from the other races, Saxons, Jutes, 
or others, were ready to enlist among his followers. Thus we 
find the Billingas at Billingham, in Durham ; at Billingley, in 
Yorkshire ; at Billinghay, in Lincolnshire ; at Billington, in the 
counties of Bedford, Stafford, and Lancaster ; as well as at other 
places, all within the districts occupied by the Angles. We find 
a settlement of the same family at Billingshurst, in Sussex; and 
some of them appear to have established themselves in the 
outskirts of London, and to have given their name to Billingsgate. 
The Bosingas are found at Bossingham, in Kent, and again at the 
two Bossingtons, in Hampshire and Somerset. The Scearingas are 
found at Sharrington, Sheringford, and Sharringham, in Norfolk; 
at Sheering, in Essex ; at Scarrington, in Nottinghamshire ; and 
at Sherrington, in Buckingham, and in Wiltshire. We have the 
Haningas at three places named Hannington, in Northampton- 
shire, Hampshire, and Wiltshire, and also probably at Hanning- 
field, in Essex. When we examine further we find in these 
patronymics names which belong to the great families whose 
history is mixed up in the earliest Teutonic mythology. The 
Waslsings, who are found at Walsingham, in Norfolk, at 
W'alsingham, in Durham, and at Woolsington, in Northum- 
berland, appear to have been offsets of the great family of the 
Volsungar of the Edda, the Volsungen of the old German 
romances. The Harlings (Herelingas), who are found at three 
places named Harlington, in Middlesex, Bedfordshire, and York- 
shire, as well as at Harling, in Norfolk, are also connected with 
the ancient Teutonic mythology, and their name is found at 
Harlingen, in Friesland. The Swaefas, a tribe who are known to 
have dwelt on the borders of the Angles, on the continent, appear 
to have given their name to Swaffham, in Norfolk. Mr. Kemble, 



434 THE SAXONS. [chap. xv. 

quoting other well-known names from the mythic and half mythic 
history of the continental Teutons, points out, as further instances, 
that the Brentings of northern romance are found in England, at 
Brentingley, in Leicestershire, and at Brantingham, in Yorkshire. 
The Scyldings, and Scylfings, celebrated northern races, gave 
their names to Skelding, and to two places named Skillington, 
in Northumberland and Dorset ; the Ardings, who are found at 
Ardington, in Berkshire, and at Ardingly, in Sussex, are, he says, 
the Azdingi, the royal race of the Visigoths and Vandals ; and 
the Banings of the continent, over whom, when the curious 
Anglo-Saxon fragment called the Traveller's Song was written, a 
prince named Becca ruled, are recognised in Banningham, in 
Norfolk. The Helsings gave name to Helsington, in West- 
moreland, and to Helsingland, in Sweden; and we find the name 
of the Bleccingas as well in Bleckingen, in Sweden, as in Blet- 
chington, in Oxfordshire, and Bletchingley, in Surrey. In the 
Gytingas, found at Guyting, in Gloucestershire, we perhaps trace 
the Jutungi of Germany ; and another Alamannic tribe, the 
Scudingi, are supposed to be traced in the Scytings, who gave their 
name to Shuttington, in Warwickshire. In these instances, conjec- 
ture is, perhaps, carried too far, as well as in the supposition that the 
Wirings, who left their name in two Warringtons, in Lancashire 
and Buckinghamshire, and to the same number of Werringtons in 
Northamptonshire and Devon, belonged to the same race as the 
Varangians (VaBrinjar), so celebrated in Byzantine history; but 
there can be no doubt that the careful study of the Anglo-Saxon 
names of localities is calculated to throw a light upon the history 
and condition of the first settlers which we can hope to derive 
from no other source.* Many of these names point directly to 
the state of the country itself, at the time the Teutonic population 
came in, and we can have no doubt that then the site of Beverley 
was a plain so unfrequented by man, that it was occupied only 
by beavers, or that places with names compounded of those of 
wolves, boars, &c, were the usual resorts of wild beasts. 

The Teutonic settlers established themselves chiefly in the 
country, where they retained all their old national feelings. We 
know that they were averse to living in towns, and, from a super- 
stitious feeling which led them to believe that the houses built by 

* Extensive materials on this interesting subject have been collected by 
Mr. Kemble in the first volume of his "Saxons in England." 



chap, xv.] THE ANGLO-SAXON LANDHOLDEKS. 435 

other peoples might be rendered dangerous for them by means of 
charms and magic, they preferred the houses which they built 
for themselves. Moreover, the country villas of the Romans, 
and the smaller and unfortified towns, had been mostly burnt or 
overthrown, and their plan and construction were not those to which 
the Saxons were accustomed. However, we do meet with instances 
of Roman villas occupied and altered by the Anglo-Saxon settlers, 
and in some instances we find that the residence of the Saxon 
chief did occupy a Roman site. This was the case with the two 
seats of the Iclings ; Icklingham, in Suffolk, and Ickleton, or 
Icklington, in Cambridgeshire, in both which places have been 
found extensive traces of Roman settlement. One of them is 
supposed to occupy the site of the Roman station of Iciani, and 
it is not quite impossible that the Saxon name in this case may 
have arisen from mistaking the Roman name for a patronymic. 
The Anglo-Saxon landholders held a position totally different from 
that of the Romans ; they were lords over their own allotment of 
soil and its population, and the principle of centralisation existed 
so little amongst them, that, rather than look up to a superior 
head for justice, the landlords formed associations among them- 
selves, to manage their own affairs, and administer justice in their 
mutual transactions. Such mutual associations formed the ground- 
work of the subsequent division of the country into hundreds, 
shires, &c. Each landholder, nevertheless, acknowledged a certain 
dependence upon, or subjection to, the chief under whom he had 
come into the island, and the latter assumed the title of king over 
his chieftains and their people. These kings were soon tempted 
by the splendour of the old Roman rule, and they tried to establish 
and increase their authority by imitating Roman forms, and adopting, 
as far as they could, the Roman principles of administration. They 
were wealthy, by the extensive landed estates which they had 
reserved to themselves in the division of lands, and by the pos 
session of the old Roman towns, which fell into their share ; and 
they had a natural influence over the other chiefs who had followed 
their banner from the first, because they belonged to the great 
families of supposed divine blood, who alone commanded that sort 
of confidence and respect which was necessary to insure obedience. 
The population of the country consisted of two elements — the 
chiefs and their followers, who had obtained possession and 
lordship of the lands, and the agriculturists and labourers, who 

F F 2 



436 THE SAXONS. [chap. xv. 

were in the position of serfs and bondmen, and comprised chiefly 
the old Eomano-British population, which under the Saxons was 
probably quite as well off as under the Romans. The Saxons thus 
held the country, while the Roman citizens continued to hold the 
towns as tributaries of the Saxon kings, within whose bounds they 
stood. The country thus exhibited Teutonic rudeness, while the 
towns were the representatives of Roman civilisation, and though the 
intercourse between the two, and the gradual infusion of Saxon 
blood into the towns, laid the foundation of modern society, there 
was a feeling of hostility and rivalry between town and country, 
which has hardly yet disappeared. Between the aristocratic feeling 
of the Saxon landholders, and the republican principles that existed 
in the towns, arose, under the balancing influence of the crown, the 
modern political constitution. 

We can understand best the mode and forms in which the 
Anglo-Saxons established themselves here, by comparing them with 
what took place, under similar circumstances, in other parts of 
Europe, where our historical accounts are more detailed and 
precise. There, also, the barbarian settlers seized on the lands, 
while the cities were generally left in the hands of the old citizens. 
On a former occasion I have described briefly the internal con- 
stitution of the Roman towns, with their curiales, or senators, and 
their various municipal officers, which, we know, were all preserved 
after the Teutonic conquests in the cities in Gaul and the other 
Roman provinces on the continent, and which were, no doubt, also 
preserved in Britain.* In Italy, where, in the mixture, the 
spirit of the Roman institutions prevailed most over the barbarian 
population, the cities, relieved from the imperial power to which 
they had been previously subjected, became in the middle ages 
powerful republics, and the curia was the prototype of those bodies 
of patrician princes, whose personal feuds led in the end to their 
subversion. In other parts of Europe, amid the general wreck, 
some powerful commercial cities retained a complete independence, 
and became known as free cities, and some of them have continued 
so to the present day. In France, M. Raynouard has traced the 
existence of the municipal officers by their original titles, even 
the defensor civitatis, during several centuries after the fall of the 
Roman power. We have unfortunately few documents which 

* The following remarks were first published in a paper communicated to the 
Society of Antiquaries, and printed in the thirty-second volume of the Archaeologia. 



chap, xv.] THE TOWNS; CANTERBURY. 437 

throw any light on the condition of the towns in England during 
the Saxon period of our history ; but we cannot help recognising 
in the Roman curia the origin of the elective body in our medieval 
towns, the prohi homines or honi homines of the older records, the 
burgesses, who, like the curiales or senators, obtained their rank 
by birth or election. The duumviri answered to the two ballivi or 
bailiffs, or, as the Saxons called them, prcefecti or reeves, who were 
the chief magistrates in most of our medieval boroughs. The 
principales were the scabini (echevins) of the continental towns, in 
England generally known by the Saxon name of aldermen. We 
might go on to point out a number of minor points of resemblance 
between the constitutions of the municipium and of the medieval 
borough at the time when we become fully acquainted with the 
domestic affairs of the latter ; but I will only now point out a few 
circumstances which tend to throw a light upon the condition of 
these boroughs under the Anglo-Saxons, when they have commonly 
been supposed by legal writers to have had no corporate existence. 
It strikes us at the first glance, that the few historical facts 
relating to the condition of our towns during the Saxon period, 
preserved by the older annalists, exhibit them in a state of im- 
portance and independence, which they could hardly have reached, 
had it not been derived from municipal constitutions already 
existing when the Saxons settled in this country, and which is 
observed most distinctly in those places which are known to have 
occupied the sites of the more powerful Roman towns. * All 
traditions (for our history of the first Saxon invasion is nothing 
more than tradition, and that very vague) represent East Kent as 
having been occupied by the Saxons under a pacific arrangement, 
when they took Durovernum, or Canterbury, as their capital. 
Recent discoveries show that the Saxons not only continued to 
inter their dead on the site of the Roman burial-places around 
the ancient city, down to the time of their conversion, but that 
they afterwards erected Christian churches on the same spots ; 
one of the strongest proofs we could have of the gradual change 
from Roman to Saxon in that city. We find Canterbury at an early 
period governed by a prefect, or reeve, who gives land to the monks ; 
and in a later charter confirming his grant, dated in 805, there is 

* It may be observed that the destruction of Roman towns is rarely mentioned 
in our earlier historians. The Saxon Chronicle speaks of the destruction of 
Andredesceaster in 491 as though it were a remarkable occurrence. 



438 THE SAXONS. [chap. xv. 

a remarkable distinction between the villa or town, and the civitas 
or corporate body, such as we might naturally expect in the 
transmission of the Roman principle to the Saxon people.* 

Rochester [Hrofescester) derived its Saxon name, according to 
Bede, from one of its early rulers or prefects named Hrof, who, 
for some circumstance or other, had probably gained greater 
notoriety than most persons of his class and rank.f In the reign 
of king Athelred (in the latter half of the tenth century), on 
account of some dissensions with the bishop, the king besieged 
this city with an army, but, being unable to take it, he in revenge 
laid waste the surrounding and dependent district. J; We here find 
the body corporate of the city taking part with its bishop, engaged 
in open war with the king, and successfully resisting him. The 
anger of the king is said to have been finally appeased by a sum 
of money given by the archbishop of Canterbury (Dunstan). 

Dover occupies the site of the Roman Dubree. It is not often 
mentioned by our earlier historians, because Richborough (Rutiipia) 
was the more usual port in landing from France ; but an incident 
occurred in the reign of Edward the Confessor which throws 
some light on the position of its municipal body. In 1048, 
Eustache count of Boulogne, Edward's brother-in-law, visited 
the king at Gloucester, where he was then holding his court. On 
his return, when at a short distance from Dover, Eustache and his 
men put on their armour, and, entering the town in a rude manner, 
they proceeded to take forcible possession of the lodgings which 
pleased them best.§ This was a right which the feudal barons of 
the continent claimed under the title of the droit de gite, and which 
was always expressly provided against in the English municipal 

* Hanc prsenominatam terram quidam homo bonus nomine Aldhun, qui in hac 
regali villa inlustris cimtatis prsefectus fuit, pro intuitu internee mercedis fratribus 
nostris ad mensam tradidit. Kemble's Codex Diplomaticus Anglo-Sax on um, 
vol. i. p. 231. 

*f Quam gens Anglorum a primario quondam illius, qui dicebatur Hrof, 
Hrofescestir cognominat. Bede, Hist. Ecel. lib. ii. c. 3. In another place, 
lib. ii. e. 6, Bede calls the city, in Latin, civitas Hrofi. 

J Osborn's Life of Dunstan, in the Act. SS. Benedict. Ssec. V. p. 683. 
W. Malmsb. de Gest. Reg. p. 63. (Ed. Savile.) 

§ Da hi ]?ider comon, J?a woldon hi innian hi \>ser heom sylfan ge-licode. Sax. 
Chron. From the circumstance of their arming before they came to the town, we 
might be led to suspect that Eustache and his men had had a previous dispute 
with the townsmen of Dover on this subject, perhaps when they first came to 
England. 



chap, xv.l ROCHESTER AND DOVEE. 439 

charters subsequent to the Conquest. One of Eustache's men 
went to the dwelling of a townsman, and wounded the house- 
holder because he refused to admit him. The latter seized his 
own weapon and slew the intruder. " Then," to use the words of 
the contemporary Saxon chronicler, " Eustache got upon his 
horse, and his companions upon theirs, and they went to the 
householder and slew him within his own dwelling; and then 
went up towards the burgh, and slew, as well within as without, 
more than twenty men. And the townsmen slew nineteen of the 
count's men, and wounded they knew not how many, and 
Eustache escaped with only a few companions." Eustache re- 
turned to the king, gave a partial account of the affair, and made 
him so " wroth with the townsmen," that he ordered Godwin, in 
whose earldom of Kent the occurrence had taken place, to pro- 
ceed with an army against the men of Dover. But earl Godwin, 
knowing that Eustache had begun the quarrel, espoused the cause 
of the townsmen, and an irruption of the Welsh seems to have 
turned the king's attention in another direction. Four years 
after this, in 1052, count Eustache again visited king Edward, 
and on his landing at Dover the old feud was renewed. " Then," 
says the chronicler, " went his men inconsiderately after lodgings, 
and slew a certain man of the town, and then another, until 
seven lay slain. And much harm was then done on both sides, 
both with horse and with weapons, until the people gathered 
together, and then Eustache's men fled away till they came to the 
king at Gloucester." On this second occasion, Godwin more 
openly took part with the townsmen of Dover, and, raising a con- 
siderable army, marched towards the king, demanded that count 
Eustache and his men should be delivered into his hands. We 
have here a town virtually claiming a very important municipal 
right, and defending it by force ; while the king proceeds, not 
judicially against the individuals who had offended, but against 
the whole corporate body, as though it were an independent 
state.* We learn, also, from the Domesday Survey, that in 
this same reign, the burgesses of Dover had purchased certain 

* The above version of the story is taken from the Saxon Chronicle as printed 
in the text and in the notes of the Collection of Historians edited by order of the 
Record Commission, which appears to be the best authority. The subsequent 
historians have confounded the two riots, and made only one. See Florence of 
Worcester, sub an. 1051 ; W. Malmsb. de Gest. Reg. p. 81, &c. 



440 THE SAXONS. [chap. xv. 

immunities of the king, for the condition of serving him with twenty 
ships for fifteen days in the year.* 

We have another instance of municipal responsibility in the 
case of Thetford, in Norfolk. In 952, the people of that town 
were engaged in hostilities with the monks (probably in defence 
of some of their privileges), in the course of which they slew 
their abbot Eadhelm. King Ed red appears to have taken no 
steps to discover the persons immediately concerned in this act of 
violence, but he sent an army, and caused " a great slaughter " to 
be made of the townsmen. f 

In 1040, king Hardacnut imposed a very heavy tribute on his 
English subjects. Two of the king's hascarles were sent to 
enforce its payment by the citizens of Worcester, who rose against 
them, and slew them in the cathedral. The king, in revenge, 
sent an army to ravage the neighbourhood and destroy the city, 
but the inhabitants had taken shelter, with their most valuable 
effects, in an island in the river Severn, and there they set their 
persecutors at defiance. J W T e here find a town asserting its right 
to exemption from extraordinary taxation ; another of the muni- 
cipal privileges guaranteed by the charters of a later period. 

The city of Exeter affords a remarkable instance of the manner 
in which the Roman municipal institutions were preserved. In 
other towns the Romano- British population gradually disappeared; 
but we learn, from William of Malmsbury, that, down to the 
reign of Athelstan, Exeter was inhabited by English and Welsh, 
who lived on an equality of rights (cequo jure§), which they could 
only have done by virtue of an original composition with the 
Saxon conquerors. It may be cited as a proof of the correctness 
of this view of the mode in which the Roman corporations out- 
lived the shock of invasion, and thus became a chief instrument 
in the civilisation of subsequent ages, that even the Danes, in 
their predatory excursions, often entered into similar compositions 
with the Saxon towns, as with Canterbury, in 1009. It may be 

* Burgenses dederunt xx. naves regi una vice in anno ad xv. dies ; et in 
unaquaque navi erant homines xx. et unus. Hoc faciebant pro eo quod eis 
perdonaverat sacam et socam. 

f Saxon Chron. sub an. 

X Saxon Chron. Florence of Worcester. 

§ Illos [Cornewallenses] quoque impigre adorsus, ab Excestria, quam ad id 
temporis aequo cum Anglis jure inhabitarant, cedere compulit. W. Malmsb. de 
Gest. Reg. p. 50. , 



chap, xv.] INDEPENDENCE OF THE TOWNSMEN. 441 

added, that there is no greater evidence of the independence and 
strength of the towns under the Saxons, than the circumstance 
that, while the king and his earls, with the forces of the counties, 
were not able to make a successful stand against the Danish 
invaders, it frequently happened that a town singly drove a pow- 
erful army from its gates, and the townsmen sometimes issued 
forth and defeated the enemy in a pitched battle. The Saxon 
Chronicle furnishes many examples. In 855, the townsmen of 
Rochester made a brave defence against the Danes, till they were 
relieved by Alfred. The inhabitants of Exeter opposed the 
invaders with success on several occasions ; the townsmen (burg- 
ware) beat them in battle in 895. In 918, the men of Hereford 
and Gloucester went out, and defeated the Danes in a pitched 
battle. In 921, the Danes were beaten by the men of Bedford, 
and also by the inhabitants of Maldon in Essex. In 1001, the 
people of Exmouth drove away the Danish army w T hich came to 
attack that town. When the Saxons began to obtain the ascend- 
ancy by the abilities of the family of Alfred, we find the towns 
revolting from the Danes in a manner which can hardly leave a 
doubt of their acting as free corporate bodies. The Saxon 
Chronicle, under the year 918, speaking of Athelfleda, tells us, 
" in the early part of this year, by Gods help, she got into her 
power, by treaty, the burgh of Leicester, and the greater part 
of the army which owed obedience thereto (]?e J?aer-to hyrde) 
became subject to her; and the people of York (Eforwicin gas) had 
also covenanted with her, some having given a pledge, and some 
having bound themselves by oath, that they would be at her 
command." And again, in the same year, " Thurcytel the eorl 
sought king Edward to be his lord, and all the holdas and almost 
all the chief men who owed obedience to Bedford, and also many 
of those who owed obedience to Northampton." In the year 
following, " those who owe obedience to Bedford " are called 
burgwara, burgesses. In 921, "the army which owed obedience 
to Cambridge " chose king Edward to be their lord. 

We can trace the power and independence of the citizens of 
London from the earliest period of our annals. We have no 
reason for believing that this city, which was a powerful com- 
mercial port, was ever taken and ravaged by the Saxon invaders. 
It appears to have afforded a shelter to the people of West Kent, 
when that district was overrun by the Saxons in their first 



442 THE SAXONS. [char xv. 

inroads.* At the end of tbe sixth century, London was considered 
as the capital of the East- Saxons, although Athelbert, king of 
Kent, appointed Mellitus to the bishopric, and built there for 
him the church of St. Paul.f At that period it was still a rich 
trading town, J and it appears to have experienced no check to its 
prosperity. After the relapse of the East- Saxons to idolatry, the 
Londoners refused to receive back their bishop, and neither the 
king of Kent, nor the two East- Saxon kings, had power to force 
him upon them.§ About the year 635, Wini bought of Wulfhere, 
king of the Mercians, the see of the city of London, and remained 
bishop thereof till his death. At a subsequent period, archbishop 
Theodore appointed bishops of the East-Saxons u in the city of 
London," and Essex has been ever since included in the diocese. 
In 679, we hear of Friesland merchants in London, and it appears 
to have been then a great mart of slaves, || A comparison of these 
different circumstances gives us some grounds for believing 
that, although nominally the metropolis of the kings of the East- 
Saxons, London was in the fullest sense of the word a free- 
trading town, neutral to a certain degree between the kingdoms 
around, although each king exercised a greater or less degree of 
influence over it according as he was more or less powerful than 
his neighbour, and perhaps each had his officers there to look 
after the interests of his own subjects. This would explain in 
some degree an obscure law of the Kentish kings, Hlothhere 
and Edric (673 — 685), made at a time when we should expect 
London to have been under the power of the kings of Mercia : — 
" If any Kentish-man buy a chattel in Lunden-wic, let him then 
have two or three true men to witness, or the king's ivic-reeve. 
If it be afterwards claimed of the man in Kent, let him then 
vouch the man who sold it him to warranty, in the wic (town) at 
the king's hall, if he know him and can bring him to the warranty ; 
if he cannot do that, let him prove at the altar, with one of his 
witnesses, or with the king's wic-reeve, that he bought the chattel 
openly in the wic, with his own money, and then let him be paid 
its worth: but if he cannot prove that by lawful averment, let 

* See the Saxon Chron. sub an. 457. 

+ Bede, Hist. Eccl. lib. ii. c. 3. 

% Et ipsa multorum emporium populorum terra marique venientium. 

Bede, ib. 
§ Bede, Hist. Eccl. lib. ii. c. 4. 
|"| Bede, Hist. Eccl. lib. iii. c. 7, and lib. iv. cc. 6, 12, 22. 



char xvj LONDON. 443 

him give it up, and let the owner take possession of it."* The 
king's ivic-reeve appears to have been an officer of the king of 
Kent who exercised a jurisdiction over the Kentish men trading 
with or at London, or who was appointed to watch over their 
interests. When the different Saxon kingdoms became consoli- 
dated into one, the influence of the sole monarch over the 
metropolis would be of course greatly increased, but we still meet 
with remarkable proofs of its power and independence. Athelstan 
was one of the most powerful of the Anglo-Saxon monarchs of 
England; yet under his reign, soon after the year 900, we find 
" the bishop and reeves, who belong to London," making in the 
name of the citizens laws, which were confirmed by the king 
(because they had reference to the whole kingdom), and are pre- 
served in the Anglo-Saxon code. These laws prove that the 
body corporate of the city of London exercised an independent 
jurisdiction in matters which concerned themselves far beyond 
the limits of their own territory, and the necessity of making this 
power known throughout the kingdom was the cause that their 
laws on this subject were entered among the public laws of the 
land, which circumstance has led to their preservation, while 
every document relating to the internal government of the city at 
this early period has perished. These laws relate chiefly to 
robberies committed by strangers, to which a large commercial 
city was naturally exposed, and against which it could provide 
itself with no redress unless it could pursue the offenders to a 
distance. One of the clauses provides, " if it then should happen 
that any kin be so strong and so great, within land or without 
land, whether twelve-hynde or two-hynde, that they refuse us our 
right, and stand up in defence of a thief, that we all of us ride 
thereto with the reeve within whose district (m anting) it may be ; 
and also send on both sides to the reeves, and desire from them 
aid of so many men as may seem to us adequate for so great a 
suit, that there may be the more fear in those culpable men for 
our assemblage, and that we all ride thereto, and avenge our 
wrong, and slay the thief, and those who fight and stand with him, 
unless they be willing to depart from him."f The power of 
making a law like this, implies something like an understood 

* Thorpe's Anglo-Saxon Laws, p. 14. Some antiquaries have supposed, very 
erroneously, that Idinden-wic is here another name for Sandwich. 
*t* Judicia eivitatis Lundoniee, viii. §. 2, 3. Thorpe, p. 100. 



Ui THE SAXONS. [chap. xv. 

agreement or treaty between a free commercial city and the 
states which surround it, whereby those states are allowed 
commercial privileges on condition of giving the citizens the right 
of pursuing offenders through their territories ; and it agrees 
perfectly with the interpretation given to the earlier law of the 
kings of Kent. 

This also explains to us why, at a very early period after the 
Norman Conquest, the privileges of the city of London are 
excepted and protected in charters given to corporate towns in 
far distant parts of the kingdom. In a dispute with the abbot of 
Bury, in the twelfth century, the citizens of London, so far from 
admitting (as Brady supposed), that their privileges were newly 
acquired from their Norman sovereigns, professed to have enjoyed 
them from the first foundation of their city, which they carried as 
far back as the time of the foundation of Rome.* 

We learn from the Saxon Chronicle that, in the Danish invasion 
of the year 994, " Anlaf and Swegen came to London, on the 
Nativity of St. Mary (Sept. 8), with ninety-four ships ; and they 
then continued fighting stoutly against the town, and would eke 
have set fire to it. But they there sustained more harm and evil 
than they ever imagined that any townsmen (buruhwaru) would be 
able to do unto them." In 1009, the men of Canterbury bought 
a peace with the Danish invaders, and then, as we learn from the 
contemporary authority just quoted, the latter " fought oft against 
the town of London ; but, praise be to God, that it yet stands 
sound, and they there ever fared ill." In 1013, king Athelred 
sought shelter in London, which was besieged by Swegen : 
"When he came to the town," says the chronicle, " the townsmen 
(seo burhwaru, la bourgeoisie, it is a collective noun in the singular 
number) would not submit, but held out against him with all their 
might." Although the Danes now overrun without opposition the 
rest of the kingdom, the Londoners defended the Saxon king, 
until at length he deserted his protectors, and then, Swegen being 
generally acknowledged as king of England, " the townsmen of 
London submitted, and delivered hostages, because they dreaded 
lest he should utterly undo them."t When king Athelred 

* Et dicebant cives Lundonienses fuisse quietos de theloneo in omni foro, et 
semper et nbique, per totam Angliam, a tempore quo Roma primo fimdata fuit, et 
eivitatem Lundonise eodem tempore fimdatam. Josceline de Brakelonde, p. 56. 

f Compare W. Malmsb. de Gest. Reg. Arigl. p. 69, with the Saxon Chronicle. 



chap, xv.] LONDON. 445 

returned, after the death of Swegen, he was again received by the 
Londoners, who formed his surest defence. In 1016, Edmund 
Atheling collected his forces against Cnut . " When the forces 
were assembled, then would it not content them, except it so were 
that the king were there with them, and they might have the help 
of the townsmen of London." As the townsmen would not go, 
Edmund's army dispersed itself. On king Athelred's death, 
which occurred the same year, " all the witan who were in 
London, and the townsmen (seo burhwaru, William of Malmsbury 
calls them the proceres Lundonm) chose Edmund to be king." 
The Danes soon afterwards laid siege to London, but the citizens 
again defended themselves with obstinacy, until Edmund came 
and relieved them. They sustained a second siege the same year, 
but, after Edmund's defeat at Assandun, " the men of London 
made a truce with the army."* 

It appears from the foregoing statements of a contemporary 
chronicler, that the men of London were brave and experienced 
warriors ; but they were evidently, like the citizens of the Roman 
municipium, not liable to be called out of their own walls to fight, 
even when the country was on the brink of ruin by a successful 
invader; and the power of the monarch over them was very 
limited. In the course of the history I have just recited, they 
act in every respect as a small independent state. Another 
incident occurred at this period, which illustrates in a remarkable 
degree the extent of their power. When archbishop Alfey had 
been slain by the Danes in 1012, the Londoners purchased his 
body of the murderers, and deposited it in St. Paul's Cathedral. 
After Cnut had obtained the crown by conquest, and peace was 
restored, archbishop Agelnoth (Alfey 's successor) applied to the 
king to give up the body of the martyr to the monks of Canter- 
bury. Cnut, who was then holding his court in London, consented, 
but he would only undertake to get away the body by deceiving 
the citizens. He gave orders to his huscarles, or household 
soldiers, to disperse themselves in parties, some on the bridge and 
along the banks of the river, whilst others went to the gates of 
the city, and there raised tumults and riots, f By dint of 

* Saxon Chronicle. 
+ Mandans oinuibus familias suae militibus, quos lingua Danorum Jmscarles 
vocant, ut alii eorum per extremas civitatis portas seditiones concitent, alii pontem 



446 THE SAXONS. [chap. xv. 

promises and persuasions, the men who had the care of the body 
of Alfey were prevailed upon to assist in the plot, and, whilst the 
attention of the citizens was called to the disturbances at the 
gates, the sacred deposit was carried by stealth to the river and 
there placed in a boat, which was rowed in all haste beyond the 
limits of the capital, and then landed in Kent. The king stood 
on the bank of the Thames, and watched its progress with anxious 
eye, for lie was afraid of the citizens* When the latter discovered 
the trick which had been played upon them, they sent out a party 
in pursuit of the fugitives, who, however, had reached a place of 
safety before they were overtaken, f 

This anecdote gives us a curious glance at London manners at 
the beginning of the eleventh century. About half a century 
after, at the entry of the Normans, we find the citizens of London 
again holding the same bold position ; and the conqueror of 
Hastings was obliged to make conditions w 7 ith them before they 
would acknowledge him as king. It is not necessary to enter into 
their subsequent history ; but it must be stated to their glory that, 
if we begin with their defence against the Danes, in the tenth 
century, the citizens of London have been, through at least nine 
centuries, the constant, powerful, and unflinching — perhaps, 
sometimes, turbulent — champions of the liberties of Englishmen. 

To return again to the more general subject, we trace by 
various allusions during the Anglo-Saxon period, that in these 
corporate towns there was, independent of the municipal officers, 
an officer of the king, or king's reeve, who took certain tolls or 
dues which were reserved for the king on sales, manumissions, 
judicial executions, &c, and which the king had obtained in the 
transmission of the municipal system from the Roman to the 
Saxon government. Thus at Exeter, as we learn from the entries 
on the fly-leaves of the now well-known " Codex Exoniensis," 
such duties were regularly paid to an officer " for the king's 
hand," to use the phrase of the original; as, for instance, Alfric 
Hals took the toll in Tovie's house " for faes kynges hand " 

et ripas fluminis armati obsideant, ne exeuntes eos cum corpore sancti Lundanus 
populus prsepedire valeat. 

* Timebat namque civium interruptiones. 

f Translatio S. Elphegi, by Osborn, ap. Act. SS. Ordinis Benedict, ssec. VI. 
part. i. pp. 124 — 126. Osborn received his account from people who were 
present, see p. 125. 



chap, xv.] MUNICIPAL PRIVILEGES. 447 

(fol. 6, r°); Widfet took the toll " for fas cinges hand "(fol. 6, v°), 
and so forth. When we hear of a Saxon king giving a town to a 
queen, or to a bishop, or to an abbey, it means, of course, that the 
king gave to those persons merely the duties which accrued to 
him from the towns in question. 

Although the municipal privileges were all derived directly 
from the Romans, it does not of course follow that such privileges 
were enjoyed only by towns which had been founded in Roman 
times. As the Saxons became established throughout the island, 
and adopted, to a certain degree, the manners of their Roman 
predecessors, they founded other towns, and they naturally 
imitated the forms presented to their view in the Roman models 
already existing. Most of these were, as the Roman towns had 
become, royal towns, that is, they had no superior lord but the 
king. But others, after the conversion of the Saxons to 
Christianity, gradually sprung up about, and under the protection 
of, episcopal sees and abbeys, and these eventually received their 
rights and privileges at the hands of their ecclesiastical protectors. 
Numerous instances of such towns might be pointed out, such as 
St. Alban's, Dunstable, Beverley, &c. It was more common for 
the early Saxon and Frankish monarchs to give towns to bishops 
and abbots, than to any other class of persons, or, at least, gifts 
to ecclesiastical dignitaries were always of a more permanent 
character. Hence it arises that, at a later period of medieval 
history, we find so many corporate towns whose charters are 
derived from ecclesiastical, and not from lay, lords. On the con- 
tinent, one or two towns became, in this manner, ecclesiastical 
principalities. 

We trace in these ecclesiastical towns of the Anglo-Saxon 
period the existence of a municipal government, and the same 
jealousy of their privileges, as in the more perfect models derived 
from Roman times. When the Danish king Swegen, then at 
Gainsborough, ignorant or careless of local privileges, demanded 
a tax of the people of Bedricsworth, or Bury St. Edmunds, the 
latter pleaded their exemption from royal taxes, and refused to 
pay. The monks of St. Edmund's of course took their part, 
because to them the regular taxes of the town had been given. 
Swegen was furious, and threatened with his vengeance both the 
monks and the townsmen; but the ecclesiastics have recorded, 
exultingly, that that same night the hand of death was laid upon 



448 THE SAXONS. [chap. xv. 

the proud and scornful Dane, and that the country was thus 
delivered from one ferocious enemy.' 1 " 

In the foregoing remarks, my object has been to bring together 
a few historical incidents which, in the entire absence of more 
explicit documents, seem to show clearly that the municipal 
government and privileges of corporate towns, derived from 
Roman civilisation, had existed in this country, as on the conti- 
nent, uninterruptedly from Roman times. In these incidents we 
trace here and there the preservation of Roman forms and Roman 
principles, and we trace still more distinctly almost every muni- 
cipal right and municipal power which were at a later period 
guaranteed by royal or other charter, and which, by comparison 
with the privileges and government of corporate towns in France 
and Italy, and elsewhere on the continent, we know to have been 
derived from the political constitution of the Romans. From 
these circumstances we are justified in concluding that our muni- 
cipal corporations were not the creations of the royal will in 
Norman times, but that they had existed in a perfect form 
throughout the Saxon period. By these considerations, also, we 
are enabled to understand better the entries relating to the towns 
in Domesday book. We find there that in many of these towns 
the king received Ms rates by his receiver (the propositus regis), 
from each particular person from whom they were due individually, 
and in each individual case. In such towns the numbers of 
burgesses paying rates are enumerated, both in the time of king 
Edward and in that of king William. The propositus regis, or 
king's reeve, is frequently mentioned, as at Dover, Lewes, 
G-uildford, &c. In other instances, and these are not few, we 
find that the municipality, to escape the too officious interference, 
and sometimes oppressive conduct, of a collecting officer who was 
not under their own jurisdiction, had compounded for the king's 
taxes, by the yearly payment of a certain sum of money. Such 
was the case with Dorchester, Bridport, Wareham, Shaftesbury, 
Hertford, and other places. It was a very necessary safeguard, 
especially for smaller towns, whose revenue the king might let 
out to farm to some one who paid a certain sum, and made as 
much of it as he could, and would probably practise every kind of 

* An interesting account of this affair is given among the miracles of St. 
Edmund, MS. Cotton. Tiber. B. II. fol. 25 and 26. See also W. Malmsb. de 
Gest. Reg. p. 71. 



chap, xv.] CHARTER OF TOWNS. 449 

extortion to enrich himself. This was experienced more severely 
in Norman times ; and when the towns obtained charters, they 
invariably bought the farm of the king's dues for ever, which was 
called the fee-farm of the town. 

The judicial entries on the fly-leaves of the Exeter manuscript, 
written before and after the Conquest, show us that the municipal 
forms and conditions of that city underwent no change upon the 
transfer of the English crown to a Norman line of sovereigns ; 
and such was probably the case in all other cities and towns then 
in existence. But, although their privileges and constitution 
were in principle untouched, in practice they were frequently 
trespassed upon. A new race of feudal lords had entered upon 
the land, who were ignorant of the customs of the people over 
whom they had intruded themselves, and who had little respect 
for any customs which stood as obstacles in the gratification of 
their views of aggrandisement. This must have led to continual 
riots and disturbances in the old Saxon towns, and to infringe- 
ments of their privileges where they had little power to obtain 
permanent redress. After undergoing all these vexations during 
a few years, they saw the advantages — or we may perhaps better 
say the necessity — of purchasing from the king written charters 
confirming their old rights, which became an effective pro- 
tection in a court of law. Thus originated municipal charters, 
which are rather to be considered as a proof of the antiquity, 
than of the novelty, of the privileges they grant. They were 
given most abundantly under Henry II. and his sons, when 
it became the policy of the English monarchs to seek the 
support of the independent burghers against a turbulent feudal 
aristocracy. 

Perhaps we may be thought to have wandered a little from our 
immediate subject in the preceding remarks ; but in the absence 
of all contemporary information on the state of the Roman towns 
in Britain after they had fallen under the subjection of the 
Saxons, it is only by these traces of their condition at a subse- 
quent period that we can perceive how the Roman element of 
civilisation was preserved in them. They hold a very important 
place in the history of social development, inasmuch as, while the 
country itself underwent so many violent revolutions — while 
Britons, and Saxons, and Normans, alternately gained possession 
of the soil — the population of the towns continued to exist without 



450 THE SAXONS. [chap. xv. 

any further alteration than that gradual infusion of foreign blood 
which must necessarily take place in the course of ages, and to 
which we owe that due mixture of Saxon and Roman that forms 
the basis of modern civilisation. 

If we possessed the necessary information on the subject, we 
should no doubt find that the Anglo-Saxons had adopted many of 
the arts and amusements of society from the Romans. Although 
the large potteries and such establishments in the country having 
been deserted by the workmen, were no doubt left in ruin, many 
of the manufactories, where they existed in the towns, continued 
probably in activity. We know nothing of the fate of public 
buildings in the towns, but we have a proof that the amphitheatres 
continued in use, in the circumstance that long afterwards we find 
them the scene of performances of bears and of bull-baiting. I 
have stated before that the Anglo-Saxons adopted the Roman 
roads and bridges in every part of the island. To the former 
they gave the name of streets (street), a word no doubt derived from 
the Latin strata, the name by which probably they heard them 
designated among the Roman population. We may still trace their 
course, by the continued recurrence of names of places in which 
the Saxon word, under such forms as stret, strat, streat, occurs in 
composition, as Stretton, Stratford, Streatham, &c. A glance at 
the map will show that the great Roman military roads resolved 
themselves into a few grand lines which traversed the island in 
different directions. Of these there were four principal lines, of 
which perhaps the most important was that which ran from 
Richborough or Dover, through Canterbury and London, across 
the island to Chester. The Saxons, who planted their own local 
traditions wherever they settled, connected this wonderful work with 
one of their own mythic traditions, and callett it Wsetlinga-straet, 
the road of the Wsetlings, or sons of Wsetla,* and it was celebrated 

* The milky way was also popularly called Watling-street, and it is mentioned 
under this name in Chaucer's house of Fame, 

Lo there, quod he, cast up thine eye, 

Se yondir, lo, the galaxie, 

The wiche men clepe the milky way, 

For it is white ; and some, par fay, 

Y-callin it han Watlinge-strete. 
Florence of Worcester, in his chronicle under the year 1013, mentioning the 
British Watling-street, says, " Omnis populis qui habitahat in septentrionali plaga 
Weatlingastreatse, id est strata quam filii Weatlae regis ab orientali mare usque ad 
occidentale per Angliam straverunt." King Weatla was no doubt a personage of 
the Anglo-Saxon mythology. 



chap, xv.] THE SAXON ROADS. 451 

down to recent times as the Watling- street, a name still retained 
by the portion of it which ran through London. To the 
road which ran direct from Pevensey and Regnum through 
London, and by Lincoln and the great Yorkshire towns to the 
south-east of Scotland, they gave the name of Eormen-strset, the 
street of Eormen, who was one of the chief Anglo-Saxon divinities, 
and whose name was often compounded in those of persons and 
things which were regarded as great or wonderful. The name at 
a later period was corrupted to Ermyn-street. Two other great 
roads which crossed the island, one from the coast of Norfolk, by 
Cambridge, Old Sarum, and Exeter, to the extremity of Cornwall; 
the other, from the mouth of the Tyne to Gloucester, and thence 
to St. David's; were named the Iknield-street and the Ryknield- 
street, but the origin of these names is very doubtful. Other 
roads of less importance received also their distinctive appellations. 
Two, originating at the great saltworks at Droitwich, and pro- 
ceeding, one eastwardly to the coast of Lincolnshire, the other 
southwardly to the Hampshire coast, have been designated as the 
Salt- ways ; and another leading from the east to Cirencester, was 
known as the Akeman-street, it is supposed because it was the way 
by which invalids travelled to Bath, one of the Saxon names of 
which was Akemannes-ceaster, or the city of invalids. 



g 2 



452 THE WELSH. [chap. xvi. 



CHAPTER XVI. 

Celtic Establishments. — Cumbria, Cornwall, Wales. — Early sepulchral inscriptions 
found in the two latter countries. 

While the Saxon tribes were penetrating into the island from 
the east and south, other races were establishing themselves on 
the eastern side, whose history is completely lost. We are 
assured by nearly contemporary writers that, when the Teutonic 
invaders began to harass Britain, the Picts and Scots, who were 
of course joined by the Irish, carried on their destructive inroads 
on the other side of Britain, which would be left in a compara- 
tively defenceless state by the withdrawal of the legions from 
Deva {Chester) and Isca (Caerleon) some years before the Roman 
emperors relinquished the island. From this time history and 
tradition are equally silent, until, when we arrive again at the 
period when the annals of at least one part of the island become 
authentic, we find three distinct Celtic states in existence, that of 
the Cumbrians in the north, that of the Wealas, or Welsh, in 
the mountainous region to which they have given their name, and 
which was divided into several petty states, and that of the 
Cornwealas, who gave their name to Cornwall. It is impossible 
to decide the question satisfactorily as to whence the population 
of these districts came, whether they were the primitive Britons, 
who had arisen and taken possession of the land of their fore- 
fathers ; whether they were Caledonians from the north, who, like 
the Saxons, at last settled down in the country which they had 
been accustomed to invade, or Irish from the neighbouring island ; 
or whether they were a mixture of these different peoples. We 
know T too little of the language of the Britons before Caesar's 
invasion to found any certain argument upon it ; and all that we 



chap, xvi.] THE CELTIC DISTRICTS OF ENGLAND. 453 

can say is, that these Celtic settlers seem to have been a bar- 
barous people, who were much less than the Saxons capable of 
benefiting by the Roman civilisation with which they came in 
contact. We find no antiquities of this period among the Welsh, 
as we do among the Anglo-Saxons, and in Wales at least the 
Roman towns seem to have been mostly destroyed. 

We can hardly doubt that it was the Caledonian Picts who, while 
the Angles were establishing themselves in Bernicia and Deira, 
got possession of the district extending on the western side of the 
island from Lancashire, of which they formed a kingdom known by 
the name of Cumbria, and called by the Scots the kingdom of 
Strathcluyd, because its northern limits lay upon the Clyde. The 
Cumbrian Celts preserved, we know, two Roman towns, Lugubal- 
lium in the neighbourhood of the wall of Hadrian, and a strong 
town on the waters of the Clyde, which had been called under the 
Romans Tamea and Theodosia. The latter became the metro- 
polis of the chieftains of the Cumbrians, and they named it, from 
its situation, Al-cluyd ; the Irish Scots, their neighbours, called it 
Dun-Breton, the fortress of the Britons, a name still preserved in 
that of Dumbarton, by which it is known at the present day. 
Their southern town, Luguballium, retained its old name, cor- 
rupted, with the addition of caer, which, like the Saxon ceaster, is 
a mere corruption of the Roman castrum, and was called Caer-luel, 
or Caer-leol, now Carlisle. The legendary Scottish annalists give 
us names of the kings of Strathcluyd, and speak of their exploits ; 
some of them pretend that Carausius granted Cumberland and 
Westmoreland to a Scottish king named Crathlynt, in consideration 
of important services which he had rendered to that usurper, and 
they add that Crathlynt's son was confirmed in possession. All, 
however, that w T e know with certainty is, that the Cumbrian 
Britons were at an early period engaged in war with the Angles, 
and that the southern part of the kingdom of Alcluyd with the 
city of Carlisle fell eventually under the power of the Northum- 
brian kings. Carlisle is celebrated in British legend as the 
favourite residence of king Arthur. 

To judge by the tenor of these legends, the Cumbrians appear 
to have preserved more of Roman culture than the Welsh or 
Cornish. The latter seems to have had a close connection with 
the Irish and with the Celts of Armorica, and we can hardly help 
believing that invaders from the one country and settlers from the 



454 THE WELSH. [chap. xvi. 

other, helped to swell its population. They were dependent on 
the important Roman town of Isca, which the Saxons called 
Exan-ceaster, the city on the river Exe. The Corn-wealas pre- 
served their independence until the time of king Athelstan. 

Wales was divided under several petty chiefs, of whom those 
who inhabited the southern district, where the principal Roman 
towns stood, seem to have been the least barbarous. Here they 
took possession of the important Roman town of Maridunum, and 
they preserved the memory of its ancient name in that of Caer- 
Marddyn, or Caermarthen, which during the middle ages was the 
most important town in Wales. Most of the names of Roman 
towns in Wales were preserved in the same manner, as in 
Caer-Seiont (Segontium), Caer-Went (Venta), Neath (Nidum), &c. ; 
and this would certainly make us inclined to believe that the 
Welsh race was an indigenous one, and that it consisted, at 
least in part, of a population which had been left there by the 
Romans. In memory of the second legion, which had been so 
long established at the Silurian Isca, they gave to the ruins of 
that city the name of Caer-Legion, the city of the legion, now 
softened to Caerleon. They gave the same name of Caer-Legion 
to Deva, or Chester, the head-quarters of the twentieth legion. 

It is a remarkable circumstance connected with these Celtic 
kingdoms, that when we first become acquainted with them — 
about the time of St. Augustine — we find that Christianity was 
established among them. We have no evidence, indeed, that the 
Cumbrian Britons were Christians, and we may perhaps presume 
the contrary ; but there can be no doubt that the Welsh and the 
people of Cornwall professed the Gospel, and the former had a 
large establishment of monks at a place called by the Saxons 
Bancorna-byrig, which probably occupied the old Roman station 
of Bovium, which appears to have been called at the close of the 
Roman period Banchorium, and is supposed to be the place now 
called Bangor Iscoed, in the Welsh county of Flint. The origin 
of Christianity in Cornwall and Wales is a very obscure question, 
and one which it is not a part of our plan to discuss. It has been 
already intimated that we find no traces of Christianity among the 
innumerable Roman remains found in this country ; and the 
Christian faith of the Britons seems to have been closely allied 
with that of Ireland. To this connection the later legends of the 
Welsh and Cornish saints seem distinctly to refer ; and we might 



chap, xvi.] EARLY SEPULCHRAL INSCRIPTIONS. 455 

be induced by these legends and other circumstances to suspect 
that their first missionaries came from Spain or Armorica, after 
the period when the island was relinquished by Rome. 

There is one class of antiquities, fouod in Wales and Cornwall, 
but more especially in the latter county, which appears to belong 
to the period following immediately after that of the departure of 
the Roman legions. These are large, roughly-hew 7 n stones, 
bearing sepulchral inscriptions, in letters nearly resembling those 
of the late Roman monuments. They are in Latin, but the names 
are evidently Celtic, and they give simply the name of the indi- 
vidual commemorated and his father. They differ from the 
Roman inscriptions in this, that the inscription runs the length- 
way of the stone, instead of being read across. A number of 
examples will be found in the volumes of Lysons's Magna 
Britannia for Devonshire and Cornwall, and in Borlase's 
Antiquities of Cornwall. One of the earliest and best preserved 
stands in the parish of St. Columb Minor, in the latter county ; 
it is five feet high, by twenty inches in width, and the inscription 
is particularly curious, as giving to the person it commemorates 
the Roman title of tribune : — 

ho^emimor Honemimoras 

trlbvn the tribune. 

Another of these stones, which is found at Lanyon, in the parish 
of Maddern, where it is popularly known as the men skryfa, or 
inscribed stone, has the inscription : — 

rialobran Rialobranus, 

cvnoval fil son of Cunovalis. 

The inscription on a similar stone, at Tavistock in Devon- 
shire, is : — 

neprani Nepranius, 

fili condevi son of Condevus. 

Lysons gives two others found in Devonshire, at Buckland 
Monachorum, and at Lastleigh. One, which had been used as 
the gate-post to the vicarage house at St. Clement's, near Truro, 
had the following inscription in one line, giving a Roman name 
combined with a Celtic or a Teutonic name : — 

isnioc vital fili TORRici Isniocus Vitalis son of Torricus. 



456 THE WELSH. [chap. xvi. 

Sometimes the words hic jacet are added to the inscription. Thus 
the inscription on one of these monuments, standing in the road 
between Fowey and Castledor, and popularly called from its 
height (eight feet) the long stone, is : — 

cirvsivs hic iacet Cirusius lies here, 

cvnomori filivs the son of Cunomorus. 

At Worthyvale, not far from Camelford, in Cornwall, there is 
an inscribed stone, nine feet nine inches long, and two feet 
three inches wide, which had been formerly thrown across a 
small stream to serve as a bridge. The inscription is : — 

catin hic iacit Catinus lies here, 

filivs magari the son of Magarus. 

These inscriptions are usually assigned, and probably with 
reason, to the fifth and sixth centuries. Those found in Wales 
have generally a mixture of cursive letters with the capitals, and 
belong evidently to a later period, perhaps from the ninth to the 
eleventh centuries. One stone, however, which w T as discovered 
near the Roman road from Nidum (Neath) to the southern 
Bovium (Eivenny), is of a date as early as those found in Cornwall, 
and is expressed in the same form. The inscription, in one line, 
commemorates Cantusus, the father of Pavinus: — ■ 

HIC IACIT CANTVSVS PATER PAVIWVS. 

It was evidently written by one who spoke Latin corruptly ; but 
its greatest singularity is the circumstance that the inscription 
is cut on the back of an older inscribed stone, dedicated to the 
emperor Maximinus ; and although the pure Roman inscription 
is written in lines across the stone, the later inscription is 
written, like those found in Cornwall, lengthways. It remains 
to be stated that one or two of these stones have evidently had a 
cross at the top, so that there can be no doubt of the people to 
whom they belonged being Christians. 



APPENDIX. 



I— THE ITINERARIES AND LISTS OF TOWNS. 

In our fourth chapter we have given a general account of the Roman 
towns in Britain, with their modern representatives, as far as these have 
been ascertained, or where they have been fixed conjecturally. Many of 
them are identified without any room for doubt, while others (though 
comparatively few) remain still uncertain, from errors in the distances 
given in the Itineraries, or from the want of a proper investigation of the 
neighbourhoods in which they must have stood. It will be perhaps of 
use, to assist such investigations, if we give here the texts of the Itineraries 
relating to our island, with the distances as there given in Roman miles. 

The first and most undoubtedly authentic of these is the great Itinerary 
of the Roman Empire which goes under the name of Antoninus Augustus. 
It is supposed to have been composed about the year 320. The best 
edition is that of Wesseling, from which the portion relating to Britain is 
here taken. 



A Gessoriaco de Galliis Ritupis in 
portu Britanniarum stadia nu- 
mero ccccl. 

(1) A limite, id est a vallo, Prsetorio 
usque, m. p. clvi. 

A Bremenio Corsto- 

. m. p. xx. 
. m. p. ix. 
. m. p. xix. 
. m. p. xxh. 
. m. p. xxiv. 



pitum 
Vindomora 
Vinovia 
Cataraetoni 
Isurium 
Eburacum, 1 

victrix 
Derventione 
Delgovitia 
Prsetorio 



m. p. xvii. 
m. p. vii. 
m. p. xiii. 
m. p. xxv. 



(2) Iter a vallo ad portum Ritupis 
m. p. cccclxxxi, sic : 
A Blato Bulgio Castra 
Exploratorum . m. p. 



Laguvallo 

Voreda . 

Brovonacis 

Verteris 

Lavatris 

Cataraetoni 

Isurium 

Eburacum 

Calcaria 

Camboduno 

Mamucio . 

Condate 



. m.p 
. m. p. 
. m. p, 
. m.p 
. m. p 
. m. p 
* m. p. 
. m.p. 
. m.p. 
. m. p, 
. m.p. 
.p. 



Deva leg. xx victrix . m. p, 



>. xn. 
. xii. 

xiv. 
•. xiii. 
. xiii. 
.xiv. 
.xiii. 

xxiv. 

xvii. 
. ix. 

XX. 

i. xviii. 
. xviii. 

XX. 



458 



APPENDIX. 



Bovio 

Mediolano 

Eutunio . 

Uroconio 

Uxacona . 

Pennocrucio 

Etoceto 

Manduessedo 

Venonis 

Bennavenna 

Lactodoro 

Magiovinto 

Durocobrivis 

Verolamio 

Sulloniacis 

Londinio 

Noviomago 

Vagniacis 

Durobrivis . . 

Durolevo 

Duroverno . . 

Ad portum Eitupis . 



m. p. x. 
m. p. xx. 

m. p. xii. 
m. p. xi. 
m. p. xi. 
m. p. xii. 
m. p. xii. 
m. p. xvi. 
m. p. xii. 
m. p. xvii. 
m. p. xii. 
m. p. xvii. 
m. p. xii. 
m. p. xii. 
m. p. ix. 
m. p. xii. 
m. p. x. 
m. p. xviii. 
m. p. ix. 
m. p. xiii. 
m. p. xii. 
m. p. xii. 



(3) Iter a Londinio ad portum 

Dubris m. p. lxvi, sic : 
Durobrivis . . m. p. xxvii. 
Duroverno . . m. p. xxv. 

Ad portum Dubris . m. p. xiv. 

(4) Iter a Londinio ad portum 

Lemanis m. p. lxviii, sic : 
Durobrivis . . m. p. xxvii. 
Duroverno . . m. p. xxv. 

AdportumLemanis m. p. xvi. 



(5) Iter a Londinio 
vallum, m. p. 
Csesaromago 
Colonia . 
Villa Faustini . 
Icianos . 
Camborico 
Duroliponte . 
Durobrivas 
Causennis 
Lindo 
Segeloci . 
Dano . 
Legeolio 
Eburaco 
Isubrigantum 
Cataractoni 
Lavatris . 



Luguvallio ad 
ccccxliii, sic : 



. m. p 
. m. p. 
. m. p. 
. m. p. 
. m. p. 
. m. p. 
, m. p. 
. m. p. 
. m. p. 
, m. p. 
. m. p. 
, m. p. 
. m. p. 
. m. p. 
. m. p. 
. m. p. 



». XXVlll. 

xxiv. 

xxxv. 

xviii. 

xxxv. 

xxv. 

xxxv. 

xxx. 

xx vi. 

xiv. 

xxi. 

xvi. 

xxi. 

xvii. 

xxiv. 

xviii. 



Verteris 
Brocavo 
Luguvallio 

(6) Iter a Londinio 
clvi, sic : 
Verolamio 
Durocobrivis 
Magiovinio 
Lactodoro . 
Isannavatia 
Tripontio . 
Vennonis 
Eatis 
Verometo 
Margiduno 
Ad Pontem 
Crococalano 
Lindo . 



. m. p. xm. 
. m. p. xx. 
. m. p. xxiL 

Lindo, m. p. 

. m. p. xxi. 
. m. p. xii. 
. m. p. xii. 
. m. p. xvi. 
. m. p. xii. 
. m. p. xii. 
. m.p.ix. 
. m. p. xii. 
. m. p. xiii. 
. m. p. xiii. 
. m. p. vii. 
. m. p. vii. 
. m. p. xii. 



(7) Iter a Eegno Londinio, m. p. 

xcvi, sic : 
Clausentum . . m. p. xx. 
Venta Belgarum . m. p. x. 
Calleva Attrebatum m. p. xxii. 
Pontibus . . . m. p. xxii. 
Londinio . . m. p. xxii. 

(8) Iter ab Eburaco Londinium, 

m. p. ccxxvii, sic : 
Lagecio . . . m. p. xxi. 

Dano . . . m. p. xvi. 
Ageloco . . . m. p. xxi. 

Lindo . . . m. p. xiv. 
Crococalano . . m. p. xiv. 

Margiduno . . m. p. xiv. 
Vernemeto . . m. p. xii. 

Eatis . . . m. p. xii. 
Vennonis . . . m. p. xii. 

Bannavanto . . m. p. xviii. 
Magiovinio . . m. p. xxviii. 

Durocobrivis . m. p. xii. 

Verolamio . . m. p. xii. 

Londinio . . m. p. xxi. 

(9) Iter a Venta Icenorum Lon- 
dinio, m. p. cxxviii, sic : 



Sitomago 
Combretonio 
Ad Ansam 
Camuloduno 
Canonio . 
Csesaromago . 



m. p. xxxn. 
, m. p. xxii. 
, m. p. xv. 
, m. p. vi. 
, m. p. ix. 

m. p. xii. 



ITINERARY OF ANTONINUS. 



459 



Durolito . . . m. p. xvi. 


Magnis . 


. m. p. xxii. 


Londinio . . m. p. xv. 


Bravinio . 


. m. p. xxiv. 




Viroconio 


. m. p. xxvii. 


(10) Iter a Glanoventa Mediolano, 






m. p. cl, sic : 


(13) Iter ab Isca 


Calleva, m. p. 


Galava . . . m. p. xviii. 


cix, sic : 




Alone . . . m. p. xii. 


Burrio . 


. m. p. ix. 


Galacum . . m. p. xix. 


Blestio 


. m. p. xi 


Bremetonaci . . m. p. xxvii. 


Ariconio 


. m. p. xi. 


Coccio . . . m. p. xx. 


Glevo 


. m. p. xv. 


Mancunio . . . m. p. xvii. 


Durocornovio 


. m. p. xiv. 


Condate . . m. p. xviii. 


Spinis 


. m. p. xv. 


Mediolano . . m. p. xviii. 


Calleva . 


. m. p. xv. 


(11) Iter a Segontio Devam, m. p. 


(14) Item alio itinere ab Isca Calleva, 


lxxiv, sic : 


m. p. ciii, sic : 




Conovio . . m. p. xxiv. 


Venta Silurum 


. m. p. ix. 


Varis . . . m. p. xix. 


Abone . 


. m. p. ix. 


Deva . . . m. p. xxxii. 


Trajectus . 


. m. p. ix. 




Aquis Solis . 


. m. p. vi. 


(12) Iter per Muridunum Viroco- 


Verlucione 


. m. p. xv. 


nium, m. p. clxxxvi, sic : 


Cunetione 


. m. p. xx. 


Vindorni . . m. p. xv. 


Spinis 


. m. p. xv. 


Venta Belgarum . m. p. xxi. 


Calleva . 


. m. p. xv. 


Brige . . . m. p. xi. 






Sorbioduni . . in. p. ix. 


(15) Iter a Calleva 


Isca Dumnu- 


Vindogladia . m. p. xii. 


niorum, m. p. 


cxxxvi, sic : 


Durnovaria . * m. p. viii. 


Vindorni . 


. m. p. xv. 


Muriduno . ' m. p. xxxvi. 


Venta Belgarum 


. m. p. xxi. 


Isca Dummmiorum m. p. xv. 


Brige 


. m. p. xi. 


Leucaro . . . m. p. xv. 


Sorbioduni 


. m. p. viii. 


Nido . . . m. p. xv. 


Vindogladia . 


. m. p. xii. 


Bomio . . . m. p. xv. 


Durnovaria 


. m. p. viii. 


Iscse,leg. ii. Augusta, m. p. xxvii. 


Muriduno 


. m. p. xxxvi. 


Burrio . . . m. p. ix. 


IscaDumnuniorum. m. p. xv. 


Gobannio . . . hi. p. xii. 







The description of Britain attributed to Richard of Cirencester has been 
the subject of much discussion, and appears to be made up of very 
discordant materials. How much was really the work of a monk of 
Westminster, and how much we owe to the modern editor, Bertram of 
Copenhagen, it is not easy to say, for the manuscript has very strangely 
disappeared. It appears, however, that the old monk had before him a 
Roman itinerary similar to that of Antoninus, or perhaps a map, from 
which he extracted the part relating to Britain, which is inserted in his 
book under the title of Diaphragmata. That this Itinerary was not 
invented by Bertram seems clear from the circumstance that his roads, 
though they are not always the same as those in Antoninus, have been 
traced where he places them, and that their existence was certainly not 
known in Bertram's time. The following is the text of Richard's Diaphrag- 
mata, which is in some parts imperfect, from the damaged state of the 
manuscript : — 



460 



APPENDIX. 



Iter I. Rhutupis prima in Britannia 
insula civitas versus Galiiam, 
apud Cantios sita, a Gessoriaco 
Bonnonise portu, unde commo- 
dissimus in supradictam insu- 
lam transitus obtingit, ccccl. 
stadia, velut alii volunt xlvi. 
mille passuum remota. Ab 
eadem civitate ducta est via 
Guethelinga dicta, usque in 
Segontiuni, per m. p. cccxxiiii. 
plus minus, sic : 

Cantiopoli, quae et 

Duroverno . . m. p. x. 

Durosevo . . xii. 

Duroprovis . . . xxv. 

deinde m. p. xxvii. transit Thamesin, 
intrasque provinciam Flaviam 
et civitatem Londinium (Au- 
gustam), 

Sulomago. . . m. p. ix. 

Verolamio municipio xii. 

Unde fuit Amphibalus et Albanus 
martyres. 

Foro Dianae . . xii. 

Magiovinio . . xii. 

Lactorodo . . xii. 

Isantavaria . . . xii. 

Tripontio . . xii. 

Benonis ... ix. 

Hie bisecatur via, alterutrumque 
ejus brachium Lindurn usque, 
alterum versus Viriconium pro 
tenditur, sic : 

Manduessuedo . . m. p. ix. 

Etoceto . . . xiii. 

Pennocrucio . . xii. 

Uxaconia . . . xii. 

Virioconio . . xi. 

Banchorio . . . xxvi. 

Deva colonia . . x. 

Fines Flavise et Secundse. 

Varis . . . . m. p. xxx. 

Conovio . . . xx. 

Seguntio . . . xxiv. 

Iter II. A Seguntio Virioconium 
usque m. p. Ixxiii., sic : 
Heriri monte . . m. p. xxv. 
Mediolano . . . xxv. 

Rutunio . . xii. 

Virioconio ... xi. 



Iter III. A Londinio Lindum 
coloniam usque, sic : 
Durosito . . m. p. xii. 

Csesaromago . . xvi. 

Canonio . . . xv. 

Camaloduno colonia ix. 

Ibi erat templum Claudii, arx 
triumphalis, et imago Victoria} 
deae. 
Ad Sturium amnem . m. p. vi. 
et finibus Trinobantum cenimannos 
advenis. 



Cambretonis 


m. p. xv. 


Sitomago . . . 


xxii. 


Venta Cenom. . 


xxiii. 


Camborico . 


xxii. 


Duraliponte 


XX. 


Durnomago 


XX. 


Isinnis 


XX. 


Lindo . . . 


XX. 



Iter IV. A Lindo ad vallum usque, 
sic': 

Argolico . . . m. p. xiv. 

Dano . . ■. xx. 

Ibi intras Maximam Caesariensem. 

Legotio . . . m. p. xvi. 

Eboraco municip. 

olim colonia sexta . m. p. xxi. 

Isurio . . . . xvi. 

Cattaractoni . . xxiv. 

Ad Tisam . * x. 

Vinovio -. . . xii. 

Epiaco . . . . xix. 

Ad Murum . . ix. 

Trans Murum intras Valentiam. 

Alauna amne . . m. p. xxv. 

Tueda flumine . . xxx. 

Ad vallum . . . 

Iter V. A limite Prseturiam usque, 



sic: 
Curia 
Ad Fines 
Bremenio 
Corstoplio 
Vindomora 
Vindovio 
Cattaractoni 
Eboraco 
Derventione 
Delgovicia 
Prasturio . 



m. p. 
m. p. 
m. p. 



xx. 

ix. 

xix. 

xxii. 

xl. 

vii. 

xiii. 

xxv. 



ITINERARY OF RICHARD. 



461 



Iter VI. Ab Eboraco Devam usque, 

sic: 

Calcaria . . . m. p. ix. 

Camboduno . . xxii. 

Mancunio . . . xviii. 

Finibus Maxima? et 

Flavise . . . m. p. xviiL 
Condate . . . xviii. 

Deva . . . xviii. 

Iter VII. A portu Sistuntiorum 
Eboracum usque, sic : 
Rerigonio . . . m. p. xxiii. 
Ad Alpes Peninos . viii. 

Alicana ... x. 

Isurio . . . xviii. 

Eboraco . . . xvi. 

Iter VIII. Ab Eboraco Luguvalium 
usque, sic : 
Cattaractoni . . m. p. xl. 

Lataris . . . xvi. 

Vataris . . . xvi. 

Brocavonacis . . xviii. 

Vorreda . . . xviii 

Lugubalia . . xviii 



Iter IX. A Luguballio Ptorotorum 
usque, sic : 

Trimontio . 

Gadanica 

Corio . 

Ad Vallum 
Iucipit Vespasiana. 



Alauna 
Lindo 
Victoria 
Ad Hiernam 
Orrea . 
Ad Tavum 
Ad iEsicam . 
Ad Tinam 
Devana 
Ad Itunam 
Ad montem 



pium 
Ad Selinam 
Tuessis 
Ptorotone 
Iter X. Ab ultima 



Gram 



m. p. 
m. p. 
m. p. 
m. p. 



m. p. xn. 
ix. 



ix. 



XIV. 

xix. 

xxiii. 
viii, 
xxiii. 
xxiv. 



m. p. . . . 

m. p. . . . 

xviii. 

m.p. . . . 

Ptorotone per 



medium insula? I scam Damno- 



Ad Tuessim . . . 


xviii. 


Tamea 


xxix. 




m. p. xxi. 


In Medio . . . 


ix. 


Orrea 


ix. 


Victoria . . . 


xviii. 


Ad Vallum 


xxxii. 


Luguballia . . . 


lxxx. 


Brocavonacis . 


xxii. 


Ad Alaunam 


m. p. . . . 


Coccio 


m. p. . . . 


Mancunio 


xviii. 


Condate . 


xxiii. 


Mediolano . 


xviii. 


Etoceto . 


. m. p. , . . 


Salinis . 


. m. p. . . . 


Glebon colonia . 


. m. p. . . . 


Corino . 


xiv. 


Aquas Solis 


. m. p. . . . 


Ad Aquas . 


xviii. 



norum usque, sic : 
Varis 



m. p. vm. 



Ad Uxellam amnem, m. p. . . . 
Isca . . . . m. p. . . . 

Iter XI. Ab Aquis per viam Juliain 
Menapiam usque, sic : 
Ad Abonam . . m. p. vi. 

Ad Sabrinam . . vi. 

Unde trajectu intras in Brittaniam 
Secundam et stationem Tra- 
jectum . . . m. p. iii. 
Venta Silurum . viii. 

Isca colonia ... ix. 

Unde fuit Aaron martyr 
Tibia amne 
Bovio . 
Nido 
Leucaro 
Ad Vigesimum 
Ad Menapiam 
Ab hac urbe per xxx. m. p. navigas 
in Hyberniam 

Iter XII. Ab Aquis Londinium 
usque, sic : 

Verlucione . . . m. p. xv. 

Cunetione . . xx. 

Spinis . . . . xv. 

Calleba Attrebatum . xv. 

Bibracte . . . xx. 

Londinio . . . xx. 



m. p. vm. 
xx. 

XV. 
XV. 
XX. 

xix. 



462 



APPENDIX. 



Iter XIII. Ab 

usque, sic : 
Bultro . 
Gobannio . 
Magna . 
Branogenio 
Urioconio . 



Isca Uriconium 



m. p. vm. 
xii. 
xxiii. 
xxiii. 
xxvii. 



Iter XIV. Ab Isca per Glebon Lin- 
dum usque, sic : 



Ballio 


m. p. viii. 


f Blestio 


xn. 


Sariconio . 


XI. 


Glebon colonia . 


XV. 


Ad Antonam 


XV. 


Alauna 


XV. 


Vennonis . 


xii. 


Ratiscorion . 


Xll. 


Venromento 


Xll. 


Margiduno . 


Xll. 


Ad Pontem 


xu. 


Crococolana. 




Lindum . 


xu. 



Iter XV. A Londinio per Clausen- 
turn in Londinium, sic : 



Caleba . . . . 


m. p. xliv. 


Vindomi . 


XV. 


Venta Belgarum . 
Ad Lapidem . 
Clausento . . . 


xxi. 

vi. 

iv. 


Portu Magno . 


X. 


Regno . 

Ad Decimum . 


X. 
X. 


Anderida portu . 


m. p. . . . 


Ad Lemanum . 


m. p. xxv. 


Lemaniano portu . 
Dubris 


x. 
x. 


Rhutupis colonia . 
Regulbio . 
Contiopoli . 
Durolevo . 


X. 
X. 
X. 

xviii. 


Mado . 


xii. 


Vagnaca . 
Noviomago . 


xviii. 
xviii. 


Londinio . 


XV. 


,er XVI. A Lond] 


nio Ceniam 



usque, sic : 
Venta Belgarum 
Brige 
Sorbioduno . 



m. p. xc. 
xi. 
viii. 



Ventageladia 
Durnovaria . 
Moriduno 
Isca Damnon 



XXXlll. 
XV. 



Durio amne 


. m. p. . . . 


Tamara . 


. m.p. . . . 


Voluba 


. . m. p. xxviii. 



Cenia . . . m. p. . . . 

Iter XVII. Ab Anderida [Ebora- 
cum] usque, sic : 



. m.p. 
. m. p. 
. m.p. 
. m. p. 
. m. p. 
. m.p. 



Sylva Anderida 
Noviomago . 
Londinio . 
Ad Fines 
Durolisponte 

Durnomago . . . m. p. xxx. 
Corisennis . . xxx. 

Lindo . . . . xxx. 

In Medio . . . xv. 

Ad Abum . . . xv. 

Unde transis in Maximam. 
Ad Petuariam . . m. p. vi. 
Deinde Eboraco, ut 

supra . . . m. p. xlvi. 

Iter XVIII. Ab Eboraco per medium 
insulae Clausentum usque, sic: 



Ad Fines . 


UJL 


xviii. 




m 


p. XVI. 




m 


p. XVI. 


Derventione 


m. 


p. xvi. 


Ad Trivonam . . 




xn. 


Etoceto . 




xii. 


Manduessuedo . . 




xvi. 


Benonnis . 




xii. 


Tripontio 




XL 


Isannavaria 




xu. 


Brinavis . . . 




xu. 


-ZElia castra 




XVL 


Dorocina . . . 




XV. 


Tamesi 




VI. 


Vindomi 




XV. 


Clausento 




xlvi. 



Plurima insuper babebant Romani 
in Britanniis castella, suis quseque 
muris, turribus, portis, et repagulis 
munita. 



THE RAVENNA LIST. 



463 



The work known by the title of the Cosmography of the anonymous 
writer of Ravenna, is a treatise on geographical science compiled in 
that city, apparently in the seventh century. Its writer had evidently 
before him large maps of the provinces of the Roman empire, from which 
he derived his lists of towns and rivers, but as he book them without any 
apparent system, paying no attention to the roads of the Itineraries, and as 
his names are written very corruptly, we can only identify them by simi- 
larity of sound. Two manuscripts, one in the Vatican, the other in the 
National Library in Paris, furnish various readings, which sometimes give 
assistance in explaining the printed text. I here give the part relating to 
Britain, placing opposite such of the names as can be made out, the parallel 
names from the two preceding Itineraries, or the conjectures of Horsley 
as to the present sites. Such of the various readings as seem important 
are given at the foot of the page. 



(Tamerton) 



In Britannia plurimas fuisse 
legimus civitates et castra, ex 
quibus aliquantas designare volu- 
mus, id est, — 

Giano. 

Eltabo. 

Elconio. 

Nemetotacio. 

Tamaris 

Durocoronavis. 

Pilais. 

Vernalis. 

Ardua 

Ravenatone 

Devionisso 

Statio Deventia 

Stene 

Duriarno 

Uxelis 

Vertevia 

Melarnoni 

Scadum Namorum (Isca Dumno- 
niorum 

Termonin 

Mostevia 

Milidunum 

Apaunaris 

Masona. 
1 Alongium 
Item juxta suprascriptam civitatem 
Scadomorum est civitas quae 
dicitur 

Moriduno . . (Maridunum) 

Alauna silva 

Omire 



. (Durnovaria) 

(Lostwithiel) 



Tedertis 

2 Londinis 
Canca 
Dolocindo 
Clavinio 
Morionio 
Bolvelaunio 
Alauna 
Coloneas 
Aranus 
Anicetis 

3 Moiezo 
Ibernio 
Bindogladia 
Noviomagno 
Onna 

Venta Velgarum 

rum) 
Armis 
Ardaoneon 

4 Ravimago 
Regentium 
Leucomago . 
Cunetzone 
Punctuobice . 
Venta Silurum 
Jupania 
Metambala 
Albinunno 
Isca Augusta . 
Bannio . 
Brenna 
Alabum 
Cicutio 
Magnis . 



(Vindogladia) 
(Venta Belga- 



(Sorbiodunum ?) 
. (Noviomagus) 

. (Leucarum ?) 

. (Cunetio) 

. (Cowbridge) 



. (Isca Silurum) 

. (Gobannium) 

(Brenbridge) 



(Magna) 



1 Alovergium, Vat. 2 Laudmis, Fr. Lindinus, Vat. 5 Melezo, Vat. 

4 Noviomago Regentium, i. e. Noviomagus of the Regni. 



464 



APPENDIX. 



(Bravinium) 



. (Ariconium) 
. (Glevum) 
. (Arwystli) 

(Salinas) 



Branogenium 

Epocessa 

Ypocessa 

Macatonion 

Glebon colonia 

Argistillum . 

Vertis 

Salinis 

Corinium Dobunorum 

Caleba Atrebatium . (Calleva) 

1 Anderesio . . (Anderida V) 
Miba. . . . (Midhurst) 

2 Mutuantonis 

Lemanis . . (Portus Lemanis) 

Dubris . . . (Dubrse) 

Duroverno Cantiacorum (Duro- 
vernum) 

Rutupis . . . (Rutupise) 

Durobrabis . . (Durobrivse) 

Londini . . . (Londinium) 

Tamese . . . (Tamesis) 

Brinavis . . . (Brinava)) 

Alauna 

Uriconium Cornovinorum 

Lavobrinta 

Mediomano . (Mediolanum) 

Seguntio . . (Segontium) 

3 Canubio . . . (Conway) 

Mediolano . . . (Meivod) 

Sandonio 

Deva victrix 

Veratino 

Lutudarum 

Derbentione . . (Derventio) 

Salinis . . . (Nantwich) 

Condate 
4 Ratecorion . . . (Ratse) 

Eltanori 

Lectoceto . . . {Litchfield) 
5 Iacio 

Dulma . . . (Dunstable) 

Virolanium . . (Verulamium) 

Londinium Augusta 

Caesaromagum 

Camulodulo colonia (Camulodu- 
num) 

Durcinate 

Duroviguto 

Durobrisin . (Durobrivae) 



Venta Cenomum (Venta Iceno- 
rum) 

Lindum colonia 

Banovallum . . (BenwelT) 

Navione 

Aquis . . {Aidon Castle) 

Arnemeza 

Zerdotalia 

Mantio 

Alunna . (Allenton, or Whetley) 

Camulodono . . (Almonbury) 

Calunio . . . {Coin) 

Gallunio . . (Whaley) 

Modibogdo 

Cantiumeti 

Juliocenon 

Gabrocentio . . (Gabrosentce) 

Alauna 

Bribra 

Maio 

Olerica 

Derventione . (Derventio) 

Ravonia . . (Ravenglasse) 

Bresnetenati Veteranorum (Over- 
borough) 

Pampocalia 

Lagentium 

Valteris . . (Verterse) 

Bereda . . . . (Voreda) 

Lugubalum . (Luguballium) 

Magnis . . . (Magna) 

Babaglanda . (Amboglanna) 

Vindolande 

Lineojugla 

Vinovia . . (Vinovium) 

Lavaris . . (Lavatraa) 

Cataractonion . (Cataracto) 

Eburacum 

Decuaria . . . (Petuaria) 

Devovicia . . (Delgovitia) 

Dixio 

Lugundino. 

Coganges . . (Cayngham) 

Corie , . . (Corium) 

Lopocarium 
Iterum sunt civitates ipsa in Britan- 
nia, quae recto tramite de una 
parte in alia, id est de oceano in 
oceano, et Sistuntiaci dividunt 



Andereliomiba, Vat. 2 Mantuantonis, Vat. 3 Conovio. 

4 Ratae Coritanorum. 5 Statio Dulma, Vat, 



THE RAVENNA LIST. 



465 



in tertia portione ipsam Bri- 

tanniam ; id est, — 
Serduno . . (Segedunum) 

Conderco . . (Condercum) 
Vindovala . . (Vindobala) 
Onno . . . (Hunnum) 

Celunno . . (Cilurnum) 

Procoliti . . . (Procolitia) 
Volurtion . . (Borcovicus V) 
Aesica . . . (iEsica) 
Banna .... (Banna) 
Uxeludiano . (Axelodunum) 
Avalaria . . . (Aballaba) 
Maia 

1 Fanocedi 

Brocara . . (Brocavonacse) 

Croucingo . . . {Crosby) 

Stodoion 

Sinetriadum 

Clidum . . . (Glasgow) 

Carbantiuni . (Carbantorigum) 

Tadoriton 

Maporiton 

Alitacenon . * . (Elgin) 

Loxa . . . (Innerlochy) 

Locatrene . (Loch Catrine?) 

Cambroiana 

Smetri 

Uxela 

Lucotion . . (Lucopibia) 

Corda . . (on lough Cure) 

Camulossesa 

Presidium . . (Camulon) 

Brigomono . (Rerigonium) 

Abisson 

Ebio 

Coritiotar (Curia Otadenorum 1) 

2 Celerion. . (Calendar Castle) 
Itucodon 

Maremago 

Duablisis . . . (Duplin) 

Venutio . . . (Banatia) 

Trimuntium. . (Trimontium) 

Eburocassum 

Bremenium 

Cocuneda . . . (Coquet) 

Alauna • . . (Alnwick) 

Oleiclavis . . (Ogle Castle) 

Ejudensca 

Rumabo . (Drumburgh Castle) 



Iterum sunt civitates in ipsa Bri- 
tannia retro (al. recto) tramite, 
una alteri connexa, ubi et ipsa 
Britannia plus angustissima de 
oceano in oceano esse dinosci- 
tur, id est, — 

Velunia 

Volitanio 

Pexa 

Begesse 

Colanica . . . (Colania) 

Medionemetom 

Subdobiadon 

Litana 

Cibra 

Credigone 
Iterum est civitas quae dicitur 
3 Iano 

Maulion 

Demerosesa . . (Dumfries) 

Cindocellum 

Cermo 

Veromo 

Matovion 

Ugrulentum 

Ranatonium 

Iberran 

Prsematis 

Tuessis . . . (Berwick) 

Ledone . . . (Dunbar) 

Litinomago . . (Linlithgow) 

Devoni 

Memanturum 

Decha 

Bograndium 

Ugueste 

Leviodanum . . (Livingston) 

Poreo Classis . (Forfar, or Barry) 

Levioxana . . . (Lennox) 

Cermium 

Victorise 

Marcotaxon 

Tagea . . . (Menteith) 

Voran . . (Caer Voram) 

Sunt autem in ipsa Britannia diversa 
loca, ex quibus aliquanta nomi- 
nari volumus, id est, — 

Maponi 

Mixa 

Panovius 



1 Fanococidi, Vat. 2 Celorion 3 Vat. 3 Lano, Vat. 



4 Pinnatis, Vat. 
H H 











Minox v 




Coantia 


. (Keutzey) 


Taba . 


. (Tava) 


Dorvatiuni 


(Dart, or Darent) 


Manavi 




Anava 




Segloes 




Bdora 




Daunoni 




Novitia 




Currunt autem per ipsam Britan- 


Adron 




niam plurima 


flumina, ex 


Certisnassa 




quibus aliquanta nominare 


Intraum 




volumus, id est,- 




Tinea . 


. (Teing) 


Fraxula 


. (Ashbourne) 


Liar 


(Livor) 


Axium 


. (Axe) 


Lenda 




Maina 


(Mintern) 


Vividin 


. (Fawey) 


Sarva 


(Severne) 


Durolani 


(Lenham river) 


Tamaris 


. (Tamar) 


Alauna 




Naurum . 


(Nader, Wilts) 


Coguvensuron 


(Soar) 


Abona . 


. (Avon) 


Durbis . 


(Dour, or Dover) 


Isca . 


. . (Ex) 


Lemana 


(Lymne river) 


Tamion 


. (Tony) 


1 Rovia 


(Bother) 


Aventio 


(Aun) 


Kactomessa 


(Bacon) 


Leuca . 


(Low) 


Senua 




Juctius 




2 Cimia 




Leugosena 




Yelox 






1 Novia, Vat. 2 


Cunia velox, Vat. 





APPENDIX II. 



ROMAN POTTERS' MARKS. 

It will be useful to local antiquaries to furnish them with a list of the 
names of potters stamped on the red Samian ware, as mentioned at p. 219. 
This list is naturally incomplete, for new names are turning up daily, but 
it will enable those who are occupied in researches on Roman sites to judge 
if the names they meet with are new, or of common occurrence, and it will 
assist the general reader in forming a notion of the extent of the Roman 
power. It will be observed in this numerous list of names, that many are 
not Roman, and some are apparently Teutonic, The explanation of the 
different formulae of the potters will be found in our text at the page just 
referred to. It will be seen in the list that most of the potters used the 
different formulae indiscriminately. 

Before these potters' marks were collected and explained, writers who 
had met with single instances, fell into the most ridiculous mistakes in 
attempting to interpret them. Dr. Leigh, who published in 1699 a 
" Natural History of Lancashire, Cheshire, and the Peak, with an account 
of the Antiquities in those parts," obtained at Rich ester, where the Samian 
ware is found in great abundance, a fragment with the stamp fab. peo, 
(fabrica Probi), which he conjectured must have been made when one of 
the Fabii was proconsul or procurator ! A still more curious blunder was 
made in the county of Essex. By the road side, at Coggeshall, in that 
county, a sepulchral interment was found, in which, among other objects, 
was a vessel of Samian ware with the stamp cocctlli. m, which will also be 
found in the following list. It was immediately interpreted as an abbre- 
viation of Coccilli manibus, to the manes of Coccillus, and it was resolved 
that, from this personage, who was supposed to have been the lord of the 
spot, and to have been buried there, the place derived its name of 
Coggeshall ! Such errors show us how necessary it is for the antiquary 
to begin by studying his science elementarily. 

At the end of the list of potters' marks, I have given very imperfect lists 
of names stamped on mortaria and amphorae found in this island, which 
have hitherto been less carefully noted than those on the Samian ware. 
It will be observed that the formulae and the names are different. 

The frequent use of the n, for e, will be observed in these potters' 
marks. See the observations on this subject at p. 192. 

hh 2 



468 



APPENDIX. 



POTTERS' MARKS ON THE RED WARE TERMED SAMIAN. 



A. 

OF. A. AN 
OF. ABALI 
OF. ABARI 
OF. ABIN 
ABIANI 
ACCILINVS. F 
OF. ACIRAP 
A. C. E. R. O 
ACO. M 
ACRIS. O 
ACVRIO. F 
ACVTVS 
ADIECTI. M 
L. ADN. ADGEXI 
ADIVTORI 
ADVOCISI 
ADVOCISI. OF 
ADVVCISI. O 
AEI. XANT 
AELIANI. M 
AEQVIR. F 
AEQVR. F 
AESFIVINA 
AIISFIVI. m(?) 
AIISTIVI. M 
AISTIVI. M 
AESTIVI. M 
M. INEIT3A 
M. AIAVCNI 
AETERNI. M 
AGEDILLI 
AGEEDILLV& F 
AGHLITO 
OFF. AGER 
OF. ALBAN 
OF. ALBANI 
ALBANI. M 
ALBILLI. M 
OF. ALBIN 
ALBINVS 
ALBINI. MA 
ALBVCI 
ALBVCIANI 
ALBVS. FE 
ALBVSA 
AMANDO 
AMARILIS. F 



AMATICL OF 
AMATOR 
AMATORIS 
AMIIEDV 
AMICI. M 
AMMIVS. F 
AMONVS (?) 
ANDORN 
ANISATVS 
ANVNI. M 
A. POL. AVSTI 
APOLAVCIR 
OF. APRILIS 
OF. APRIS 
OF. APRO 
APRONIS 
AQVIINVS 
AQVIT 
AGVIT 
OF. AQVITA 
OF. AQVITANI 
ARACI.MA 
ARDAC 
ARGO. F 
ARICI. M 
ARICI. MA 
ARRO 
ASCILLI. M 
ASIATICI. M 
ASIATICI. OF 
ATECII. M 
ATEI 

ATILIANI. M 
ATILIANI. O 
ATILIANVS. F 
ATILLVS. 
ATTICI. M. 
ATTILLI. M 
ATTILLII. M 
ATTINVL 
ATTrVS. FE 
AVCELIA. F 
AVENTI 
AVGVSTALIS 
AVGVSTINVS 
AVLIYS. F 
AVSTRL M 
AVSTVS. F 
AVENTINI. M 



AVITI. M 
AVITOS. OF 
AVITVS 
AVITVS. F 
AVRICV. F 
OF. AVRAP 



BANOLVCCI 

BASSI 

OF. BASSI 

OF. BASSICO 

BELINICCI 

BELINICCI. M. 

BELINICCVS. F 

BELINOI. M 

BELINICI 

BELLIAIICI 

BELSO. ARV. F 

BELSO. ARVE. F 

BENNICCI. M 

BENNICI. M 

BICAAICD 

BIGA 

BIGA. FEC 

OFIC. BILICANI (?) 

BILICAT 

OFIC. BILIOAT 

BIO. FECIT 

BIR. ANIII 

BIRANII 

BIRBIIINI 

BISSVN 

BITURIX 

BL. AESI 

BOINICCI. M 

BOLDVS 

BONOXVS. F 

BORILI. OF 

BORILLI. M 

BORILLI. OF 

BORILLI. OFFIC. 

BORVSI. FE 

BOVTI. M 

BRACKILLO 

BRICCI 

BRICC. M 



POTTERS' MARKS. 



469 



BRITAIN II 

BV.DO 

BVCCIO 

M. BVCIANI 

BVRDO. F 

BVRDONIS. OF 

OF. BVRILINDI 

BVTRIV 



a 

C. C. F 
CABRYS 
CACAS. M 
CACASI. M 
CACILANTRO 
CAI. M. S 
CAIVS. F. 
CAIVS. OF 
OF. CAI. IVL 
OF. CAIVI 
CAKIVFDO. FE 
CALENVS. OF 
CALENVS. F 
CALAVA 
CALCIO. F 
CALLI. M 
CALMVA. ¥ 
CALYI. M 
OF. CALYI 
CALVINI. M. 
CALVINYS 
CAMBVS. F 
CAMTI. M 
CANAL M 
CAN. PATR 
C. ANPATR 
CANETII. M 
CANRVCATI 
CAPIIRI. O 
CAPRASIAS. FE 
CAPRASIVS 
CARANI 
CARANI. F 
OF. CARAN 
CARANT 
CARANTINI. M 
CARATILLI 
CARETI. M 
CARBONIS. M 
CARINOS 
CARITI 



CARVS. F 
O. CARO 
CARVSSA 
CASIVS. F 
CASSIA. O 
CASTVS 
CASTVS. F 
CASVRIVS. F 
CATASEXTVS. F 
CATIANVS 
CATVCI 
CATVLII 
CATVS. F 
CAVPI . . . FECI 
OF. CEI 
CELSIANI. F 
L. C. CELSI. O 
CELSINVS 
CELTAS. FC. 
CENETLI. M 
M. CENI 
CENSORI 
CENSORINI 
OF. CEN 
OF. CENSO 
CENT. AI. E 
CEREA 
CEREALIS 
CERIALIS 
CERIAL. M 
CERESI. M. 
CERTVS. F 
CETI 

CHRESL M 
CIAMAT. F 
CIMINI 
CINIVS. M 
CINNAMI 

cinnvmi: 
cintvageni 
cint. vgent 
cin. t. vssa 
cintvsmi. m 
clntvsmv 
cintvsmys. f 

CIRRI. M 
CIRRVS. FEC 
CIVPPL M 
CLIVINTLO 
COBNERTL M 
COBNERTYS 
COCCIL. M 
COCCILLI. M 



OF. COCI 
COCVRNY. F 
COCVRO 
COCVRO. F. 
OF. COE 
OF. COELI 
OF. COET 
OF. COFI 
COLLO. F 
COLLON 
COLON 
COMITIALIS 
COMPRIN. F 
COMPRINNI. M 
CONSERTI. M 
CONGI. M 
CONSTANS. F 
CONSTAS. F. 
COSAXTIS. F 
COSIA. F 
COSL R. . . 
COSIRV 
COSIRVFIN 
F. L. COS. V 
COSMI. M 
COSRV. F 
COTTO. F 
OF. COTTO 
CRACIS. M. 
ORACL S. M 
CRACISA. F 
CRACYNA. F 
CRANI 
CRAOSNA. F 
CRASSIACVS. ff 
CRAVNA. F 
CRECIRO. OFI 
OF. CRE1L 
OF. CRES 
CRESCENI 
CRESCENT! 
OF- CRESI 
CRESL M 
CRESIMI 
M. CRESTI. O 
CRLMVS. FE 
CRISPINI. M 
CROBISO. M 
CROBRO. F 
CRVCVRO 
CVCALI. M 
CYCCIL 
CVCCILLI. M 



470 



APPENDIX. 



OF. CVEN 

CVFF 

CVI. M 

OFI. CVIRIII 

CVNI. IA. F 

CVSPICI 

CVTAI 



D. 

DACO. M 
DAGO 

DOGODVBNVS. F 
DAGOMARVS 
DAGOMARVS. F 
DAGOMARVS. FE 
DACOIMNVS. F 
DAMINI. M 
DAMONVS 
DAVICI. M. 
DECMI. M 
DECVMINI. M 
DECVMNI. M 
DEM . . . R. M. 
DESTER. F 
DIGNVS. 
DIOGNATO 
DIVICATL M 
DIVICATVS. 
DIVICI. M 
DIVIX 
DIVIX. F 
DIVIXI 
DIVIXTI 
DIVIXTVL 
DMCCIVE 
DOCALI. M 
DOCCIVS. F 
DOECA 
DOMETOS. F 
DOMINAC 
DOMINCI 
DOMINICI 
DOMITIANVS. W 
DOMITV& 
DONATVS 
DONNA. M 
DONNA. OF 
DONNAVG 
DONTIONI 
DONV. M 
DOVIICCVS 



DRAVCVS. F 
DRAVCI. M 
DVPI . . . 

DVRINX 



E. 

ECVESER 

ELVILLI 

OF. IIMAN 

EPPA 

EPPN 

ERICT. M 

EROR 

E t/2 CVI xrx I. M 

ERRIMI 

ESCVSI 

ETVS. F. 

IIVST 



F. 

O. FABIN 
OF. FAGE 
FALENDI. O 
FELIX. F 
FELIXS. F 
FELICIO. O 
FELICIS. O 
OF. FELIC 
OF. FELICIS 
FELICIONIS 
O. FELMA 
FESTVS. F 
FESTVS. FO 
FETI 

O FIRMONIS 
FIVI. M 
FLOI 

FLORVS. F 
FOVRI 
FRONTINVS 
O. FRONTI 
OF. FRONTI 
O. FRONTINI 
M. FVCA 
OF. FVS 
OFF. FVS 



GABRVS. F 

GAIVS. F 

GALRINVS. F 

GEMINI. M 

GENITOR. F 

G. E. N. I. T. O. R. F 

GENIV. 

GERMANI 

GERMANE F 

GERMANE OF 

GERMANVS 

OFF. GER 

GERTAL. M 

GLVPEI. M 

GRACCHVS 

GRANANI 

GRANIANI 

GRANIO. M 

GRANIVS. F 



HABICNS. M 

HABILIS. F 

HABITIS. F 

HELI ... VS. PI. FE 

HELINIV 

HELL . . . . S. FEC 



I. 

I + OFFIC 
IABI 

IABVS. FE 
IACOMIO. F 
IANVARIVS 
IANVARII 
IANVARI. OF 
ICMCRIMO. F 
ILLIANI. M 
ILLIOMEN 
ILLIOMRIN 
IMANN 
INPRITV. F 
IOENALIS 
IOVANTI 
ISABINI. F 
ISTVRONIS 
IVCANVS. F 



POTTERS' MARKS. 



471 



OF. IVCVN 
IVBNIS. M 
OF. IYLIA 
IVLIA 

IVLIA. PATR 
OF. IVL. PAT 
IVLII. MA 
IYLIOS 
IVLI. M 
IVLIYS. F 
IVINVMI. M 
IVRONIS. OF 
IYSTI. MA 
OF. IYSTI 
OF. IYYEXAL 



K. 

KALENDI. O 



L. 

O. LAE 

OF. LABIONIS 

LALLI. MA 

LATINIAN. F 

LATINIANYS 

LATINYS 

LIBERALIS 

LIBERIVS 

LTBERTI. M 

OF. LICINI 

LICINILYS 

LICINYS 

LICINYS. F 

LICNYS 

LILTANI. M (?) 

LINIYSMTX 

LITYGAMYS 

LOCIRM. M 

LOGIRN. M 

LOLIYS. F 

LOLLIYS. F 

LOSSA 

OF. LOVIRILO 

LVCANYS 

LVCANVS. F 

LYCANTYS. F 

M. LYCCA 

OF. LVCCEI 

LVGETO. FE 

LYPEI. M 



LYPI. M 

LVPINI. M 

LYPPA 

LYPPA 

LYTAEVS 

LYTAEVS. FEC 

LVTAFVS. 



M. 

MACCALI. M 
OF. MACCIA 
MACCIYS 
MACCIYS. F 
MACERATI 
MACI. OF 
MACILLI. M 
MACIRVS 
MACRI. M 
MACRIA 
MACRINYI 
MACRINYS 
MACRIANI. M 
MAGNYS. F 
MAIANYS 
OF. MAIO 
MAIOIRI. M 
MAIOR. I 
MAIORIS 
MAIORIS. F 
MALCI. O 
MALLIIDO. F 
MALIYRN 
MALLI. M 
MALLIACI 
MALLIACI. M 
MALLICI. M 
MALLYRO. F 
MALNCNI 
MAMILIANI 
MANDYIL. M 
OF. MANNA 
MANTIIO. F 
MANYS. F 
Q. MAR. F 
MARCELLI. M 
MARCELLINI. M 
MARCI 
MARCI. F 
MARCI. MA. 
MARCI. O 
MARCYS FEC 



MARINI. M 

MARITYS. M 

MAROILLI. M 

MARTAXI. M 

OF. MARO 

MAROI. M 

MARONI. M 

MARONI. F 

MARSI. M 

MARTI 

MARTI. M 

MARTIALIS. FEC 

MARTIALIS M. 

MARTINI 

MARTINI. M 

MARTINY 

MARTINYS. F 

MARTII. O 

MARTIYS 

MASCL 

MASCVLVS. F 

OF. MASCYL. MYREI 

MASYETI 

MASYRIANI 

MATEMI 

MATERNI 

MATERNINYS 

MATERNNI. M 

OF. MATE 

MATRIANI 

MATVCENYS 

MATYCYS 

MATVRI. M 

MATYRN 

MAXIMI 

MAXMII. M 

MAXMINI 

OF. MEM 

MEMORIS. M 

MERCA 

MERCAO 

MERCATOR 

MERCATOR. M 

MERCYSSE. M 

MERCYSSA. M 

MEDETI. M 

METHILLYS 

METTI. M 

MICCIO 

MICCIO. F 

MICCIONIS. M 

MIDI. M 

MILIACI 



472 



APPENDIX. 



MILIANI 
MILLIARII 
MINVLI. M 
MINVS. FE 
MINYS. O 
MINVTIVS. F 
MISCIO. P 
MO 

OF. MO 
OF. MODEST 
OF. MODESTI 
OF. MOE 
MOM 
O. MOM 
MOMI. M 
MON 

OF. MONO 
OF. MONTECI 
OF. MONTEI 
OF. MONTI 
OF. MONTO 
MOSSI. M 
MOXIVS 
MVISVS. F 
OF. MVRRA 
OF. MVRRANI 
OF. MVSERA 
MVXTVLI. M 
MVX. TVLLI. M 
MVXIVIII. M (?) 

K 

NAMILI 
NAMILIANT 
NAKIL CROES 
OF. NARIS 
NASSO. F 
NATALIS 
O. NATIVI 
NEBVRRI. OF 
OF. NEM 
NERT. M 
OF. NERT 
NERTVS 
OF. NERI 
NEQVREC 
NICEFHOR 
NICEPHOR. T 
OF. NI 
OF. NIGRI 
OF. NIGRIAN 



NIGRINI 
N1MILIANI 
OF. NITORI 
NOBILIANI. M 
N0BILIANV3 
NVMIDI. M 
IVL. NVMIDI 
NYTIS 



0. 

OCRI. MA 
ONATIVI (?) 
OPTATI. M 
OPVSIA 
OSBI. MA 
OVIDI 

P. 

PANI. L. F 

OF. PARI 

PASSENI 

PASSIENI 

OF. PASSIENI 

OF. PASSIENVS 

O. PAS. F (?) 

PATER. F 

PATERATI. OF 

PATERCLINI. OF 

PATERCLOS 

PATERCLOS FEC. 

PATERCLVS. F 

PATERIRANTJS. FIT (?) 

PP. PATERMI 

PATERNI 

PATERNI. OF 

PATERNVLI 

PATNA. FEG 

PATNI. FEG 

PATRC hh LINI 

PATRICE M 

C. AN. PATR 

OF. PATRC 

OF. PATRICI 

OF. PATRVCI 

PAZZENI 

PAVLIVS. F 

PAVLI. M 

PAVLIANI. M 

PAVLLI. M 

PAYLLYS* F 



PAVLVS 

PECYLIAE 

PECVLIAR. F 

PECYLIARIS. F 

PIINTII. MANV 

PERE .... 

PERECRILI 

PEREGRIN 

PERPET 

PERRVS. F 

PERVS 

PERVS. FE 

PITVRICI. M 

OF. POLLIO 

PONTI. OFEIC 

POTIACI 

POTITINI. M 

POTITIANI. M 

C. IYL. PR 

PRID. FEC 

PRE IMO 

PRIM 

PRIMI 

OF. PRIM 

OFIC. PRIM 

OF. PRIMI 

PRIMITIVE 

PRIMVLI 

PRIMVL. PATER 

PRIMES 

PRIMANI 

PRIMVL 

OF. PRIMVL (?) 

OF. PRIMVS 

PRISC. L. M 

OF. PRM 

FAB. PRO 

PROTYLI 

OF. PVDEN 

PVONI. M 

PYRINX 

PVTRI. M 

PYLADES 



QVADRATI 
QVADRATVS 
QVARTVS 
QVARTVS. F 
QVIETVS. F 
QVINNO 



POTTERS' MARKS. 



473 



QVINTI. M. 
QVINTINI. M 
QV. C 



R. 

RACVNA. N 
RAMVLVS 
REBVRRI. OP 
REBVRRIS 
REBYRRVS. F 
RECEN. P 
RECMVS 
REDITI. M 
REGALIS 
REGALIS, P 
REGENVS 
REGENVS. P 
REGINI. M 
REGINVS 
REGINVS. P 
RIIGNVS 
REGVILL 
REGVLI. M 
RIIGVLI. M 
REGVLINVS 
RENECR. M 
RIIOGENI. M 
REVILINVS 
RI. IOGENI 
OP. RICIMI 
RIPANI 
RIVICA 
ROFFYS. PEG 
ROFFVS. FE 
ROLOGENI. M 
ROMVLI. OP 
ROPPVS. FE 
ROPYSI. FE 
ROPPIRVI. M 
ROTTLAI. IM 
OF. RVBA 
RYFFI. MA 
RVPFI. M 
OF. RVFI 
RVFINI 
RVFINI. M 
OF. RVFIN 
OF. RVFNI 
RVFVS. PE 



S. 

SA. ARTI (?) 
OF. SAB 
SABELLVS 
SABELVI 
SABINVS 
SABINVS. F 
SABINE M 
OFF. SAB 
SACER.YASin 
SACER. VASIPF 
SACER. VASI. OF 
SACERI. OF 
SACEROT. M 
SACIANT 
SACIRAP.O 
SACIRO. M 
SACREM 
SACRI. OF 
SACRILI. M 
SACROTI. M 
SACROT. M. S 
SALIAPVS 
SALV. F 
SAL VS. F 
SAMACYIS 
SANTINVOV. C 
SANVCIVS, F 
SANVILLI. M 
SANVITTI. MA 
SARENTIV 
OF. SARRVT 
SATERNVS 
SATERNLNI. O 
SATVRNNL OP- 
SAT. TO. F 
SCOLVS 
SCOPLI. F 
SCOPLI. M 
SCORVS 
SECANDI. M 
SECANDIN 
SECINI 
SECVNDI. OP 
OP. SECVN 
SECVNDINI 
SECVNDVS 
SECVNDVS. P 
SEDATVS. P 
SEDETI. M 
SENL A. M 



SENICA. M 
SENICI. O. 
SENILA. M 
SENNIVS. F 
SENNO. M 
SENONI 
SENTRVS. FE 
SERRYS 
SERVILIS 
SEVERI 
SEVERE OP 
SEVERI. M 
OP. SEVERI 
SEVERIANYS 
SEVERIANI 
SEVERIANI. M 
SEXTI. O 
SEXTI. M 
SEXTI. MA 
SIIXTI. MA 
SIIXTI. MAN 
SEXTVS. P 
SIIXTILI. F 
SHVLNI 
SILDATIANI. M 
SILENVS 
SILVANI 
SILVI 

SILVI. PATER 
SILVINI 
SILVINI. P 
SILVINVS. F 
SILVI. OF 
SILVI. PATRI. O 
SILVIPATRICI 
SILVVS 
SIMVRS. O 
SITVSIRI. M 
SOIIILLI. M (?) 
SOLIMI. OFI 
SOLLEMNI. OP 
SOLLVS 
SOLLVS. F 
MA. SVETI 
SVLPICI 
OP. SVLPICI 
SVLPICIANI 
SVO.DNED. OP 
SVRIVS 
SYMPHO 



474 


APPENDIX. 




T. 


VAXTI 


OF. VIRTVTIS 




VECETI. M 


VISI. M 


TALLINI 


VEGETI M 


OF. VITA 


TASCONVS. F 


VENERAND 


OF. VITAL 


TASCIL. M 


VENI. M 


OF. VITALIS 


TASCILLI. M 


VENICARVS. F 


OF. VITALI 


TAVRI 


VERECV 


VITALI. OF 


TAVRIANVS 


VERECVNDI 


VITALIS. FE 


TAVRICVS. F 


VEREDV. M 


VITALIS. M. S. F 


TBBBIL 


VERTECISA. F 


VITALIS. M. S. FECIT 


TENEV, M 


VIIRI. M 


VITALIS. PP 


TERRVS 


VERVS 


VITINVS. F 


TERCII. M 


VESPO. F 


VOCEV. F 


TERTI. M 


VEST. M 


VOSIICVNNVS 


TERTI. MA. 


VESTRI. OF 


VNICVS. F 


TERTIVS 


VEXEHNIV 


VRNINI 


TESTVS. FO 


OF. VIA 


VRSVLVS. FE 


TETTVR 


VICARVS. F 


VSTI. MA 


TETTVR. 


VICTORI. M 


VXMLINI 


TETVR. 


VICTORINVS 


VXOPILLI. M 


TITTILI 


VIDVCOS. F 




TITTIVS 


VIDVCVS. F 




TITVRI. M 


VIMPVS 


X. 


TITVRONIS 


VINN 




TITVRONIS. OF 


VIRIL 


XANTHI 


TVLLVS. F 


VIRILIS. F 


XIVI 


TVLLVS. FE 


OF. VIRILLI 


XVNX 


TVRTVNN 


OF. L. COS. VIRIL 
OF. L. C. VIRIL 






VIRONI. OF 


Z. 


V. 


VIRT 






VIRTHV 


ZOIL 


C. VALAB 


VIRTHVS 


ZOLVS 


VALERI 


VIRTHVS. FECIT 


ZAPEPIDIV 


VARIVS. F 


VIRTIVAS 


. . . RVILLV. F 


VASSALI 


V1RTVTI. F 


OIVNV 



POTTERS' MARKS ON MORTAEIA. 



ALBINVS 

ALBINS. FECIT 

APRILIS 
r ANDON 
I P. ARVA 

ANDID. FECIT 

AMMIVS 

BRIXSA 

CAS . . . 

CATVLVS. F 

CIREKOFNS 

CRICIR. OF 



DEVA . . . 
DVBITATVS 
DOLNV 
DO . . . 
EOAB 
' ESVNERT 
Q. VALERI 
LICINILVS 
LITVCENI 
LVGVDL F 
LVGVDVS. FACTVS 
LVGVDV 



F. LVGVDV 
LVGVDV. FACTV 
L. E. ECIT 
MARINVS. FECIT 
MARTINVS. F 
MATVCENVS 
MATVSENS. F 
MAXI. 
PRASSO. OF 
L. LVRIVS. PRISCVS 
P. P. R 
P. R. B. 



POTTERS' MARKS. 



475 



POTATICVS. FE 
Q. S. D. 
RLDANYS. 
RIDANYS. M 
RIPANI 

RIPANYS TIBER. F 
' A. TEREN 
RIPANI 
RVCCYS 



SAYRANYS 
SATVRNINYS. 
SATVRNINYS. FEC 
Q. YA. SE 
L. CAN. SEC 
SECYNDYS 
SOLLYS 
SOLLYS. F 
TANIO 



SEX. YAL 

Q. YALC. F 

YERANI. F 

Q. YALERI. 

ESVNERTI 

Q. YALERIYS 

VERANIYS 

T . . . S. VALEN 

YIALLA 



POTTERS' MARKS ON THE HANDLES OF AMPHORAE. 



AFRI 
C. F. AI. 
C. AZ. 

Ain 

BELLYCI 

L. YL BR 

C. 

C. IV. R 

C. Y. H 

L. CES 

C, AP. F 

CRADOS 

CARTVNIT. M (?) 

CORI 

F. C. CYFIA 

L. F. CRESCIV. FE (?) 

EIPC 



ERO. IF 

GMT 

G. S. A 

HILARI 

L. C. F. P. C. O 

IIVN (?) MELISSAE 

MELISSE 

L. IVNI (]) 

MELISSI 

M. P. R. 

MCC 

MTM 

NYMPH 

P. S. A 

POR. L. AN 

Q. S. P 

CAT. QYIE 



CANTON. QY 

CANTON. QY. ET 

CANT. QYESI (?) 

ROMANI 

L. Y. ROPI. M 

RYFSANI 

SAENNYS 

OF. SANI 

SCALENS 

L. SER. SENC 

C SEMPOL 

L. S. SEX 

L. C. SOL 

C. MARL STIL 

S. VENNR 

YALERI 

YIBIOR 



INDEX. 



Aballaba {Watch-cross), 133 

Abona (Bitton), 144 

Acus, 328 

Ad Abonam (Bitton), 144 

Ad Abum (Winterton), 127 

Ad Alaunain (Lancaster), 139 

Ad Alpes Penninos, 139 

Ad Ansam (Stratford), 135 

Ad Antonam, 140 

Ad Aquas (Wells), 143 

Ad Decimum, 144 

Ad Fines (Broughing), 125 

Ad Lapidem (Stoneham), 142 

Ad Lemanum (on the Lymne), 145 

Ad Petuariam (Brough), 127 

Ad Pontem (Farndon), 127 

Ad Sabrinam (Sea Mills), 144 

Ad Tisam, 128 

Ad Trajectum (Severn side), 144 

Ad Trivonam (Bury), 140 

Ad Uxellam (Bridgewater), 143 

Ad Vigesirnum (Castle Flemish), 137 

Adminius, a British prince, 18, 19 

iElia Castra (Alcester), 141 

iElla, the leader of the West Saxons, 

392 
^Equipondium, 346 
^Esc, king of Kent, 391 
iEsculapius, worship of, 268 
iEscwine, king of the East Saxons, 

394 
iEsica (Great Chester s), 133 
iEtius, letter of the Britons to, 389 



Age, average, of the Romans in 

Britain, 320 
Agelocum (Littleborough), 127 
Agger, 181 
Agminales, 182 
Agricola, Julius, 35, 36-39 
Agriculture, state of, under the 

Romans, 205, 207 
Akeman street, 451 
Akemannes-eeaster (Bath), 451 
Alauna (Alcester), 140 
Alauna (Lancaster), 139 
Alauna (Kier), 97, 130 
Albani (Scottish tribe), 42 
Albinus, Decimus Clodius, 102, 103- 

105 
Alcluyd (Dumbarton), 453 
Aldermen, 437 
Aliona (Whitby Castle), 133 
Allectus, his usurpation, 117 
Alonaa (Ambleside), 139 
Altars, Roman, 256 
Amber, use of, and superstitions 

connected with, among the 

Anglo-Saxons, 417 
Amboglanna (Birdoswald), 133 
Ambrosius Aurelianus, 389 
Amphitheatres, Roman, 176 
Amphora, 222, 337, used for coffins, 

306 
Ampulla, 337 

Ancalites (People of Berkshire!), 12 
Ancasta, a goddess worshipped in 

Roman Britain, 294 
Anderida, (Pevensey), 144 



478 



INDEX. 



Andredes-ceaster (Pevensey), 392 
Andredes-leah (Silva Anderida), 392 
Angles, 390 
Anglo-Saxons, their mode of settling 

on the conquered lands, 432, 

433, prejudiced against settling 

in towns, 435 
Animal remains found near Roman 

sites, 338 
Ansa, 346 

Antivestasum (the Landh End), 40 
Antoninus Pius, 100 
Antoninus, Itinerary of, 120, 457 
Antoninus's wall, 101, 108 
Apollo, worship of, 262 
Aquaa Calidse, Aquae Solis (Bath), 

95,143 
Arcani, agents employed in Britain, 

377 
Arciaconus, a deity worshipped in 

Eoman Britain, 294 
Ariconium (Weston), 136 
Armillce, 328 
Armour, Roman, 347, Anglo-Saxon, 

408, 409 
Arrow-heads of stone, 70 ; Anglo- 
Saxon, 406 
As t arte, worship of, 269 
Athelbert becomes king of Kent, 

392 ; converted to Christianity, 

396, 397 
Attacotti (Scottish tribe), 42, 113, 375 
Attrebates (Berkshire), 40 
Augustine, St., the apostle of the 

Anglo-Saxons, 396 
Auteri (Irish tribe), 43 
Avebury, British circles at, 60 
Avisford, in Sussex, remarkable 

Roman tomb found there, 305 
Axe, Anglo-Saxon war-axe, 409 
Axelodunum (Bowness), 133 



B. 



Ballivi, 437 
Banatia (Bonness), 97 
Banchorium (Bangor), 138 
Bancorna-byrig (Bangor Iscoed), 

454 
Banna, a Roman town near Hadrian's 

Wall, 208 
Barrows, or sepulchral mounds, 49, 



50, 65; Roman, 311-313; Anglo- 
Saxon, 401-404 
Bartlow hills, 312 
Basilica, Roman, 175, 176 
Bathan-ceaster (Bath), 394 
Baths, in Roman houses, 168 ; 

public, 175, 176, 346 
Beads, Roman, 230; Anglo-Saxon, 

417 
Bebban-byrig (Bamborough) built, 

394 
Belatucadrus, a god worshipped in 

Roman Britain, 292 
Belgae (Hants, Wilts, and Somerset), 

3, 22, 40 
Bells, Roman, 339 
Bennaventa (Burrow Hill), 124 
Benonse (High Cross), 124 
Beorh, beorg, bearw, 401 
Beowulf, the Anglo-Saxon poem of, 

400 
Bericus, a British prince, 18, 20 
Bernicia, kingdom of, 390 
Bibracte, 136 

Bibroci (people of Sussex), 12 
Bignor, Roman villa at, 198 
Bilanx, 346 
Blanii (Irish tribe), 43 
Blatum Bulgium (Middleby), 131 
Blestium (Monmouth), 136 
Boadicea, 30, 33 
Bolanus, Vettius, 35 
Bolerium (the Lands End), 40 
Boni homines, 437 
Bonus Eventus worshipped, 192, 

280 
Borcovicus (Homesteads), 132 
Bos longifrons, 338 
Bovium (Bangor), 138 
Bovium (Ewenny), 137 
Bowls, Anglo-Saxon, 427 
Box, branches and leaves of, buried 

with the dead by the Romans, 

323 
Braciaca, an epithet of Mars, 262 
Brannogenium (Leintwardine), 138 
Bremenium (High Rochester), 97, 129 
Bremetenracum (Brampton), 133 
Bremetonacse (Overborough), 139 
Bricks or tiles, Roman, 155 
Bridges, Roman, 184 
Brigantes (North of England), 23, 41, 

100 



INDEX. 



479 



Brigantes (Irish tribe), 43 
Brigantia, the goddess, 294 
Brigis, or Brige (Broughtori), 142 
Brinavae (Black-ground), 141 
Britain, description of, by Caesar, 
15 ; by Strabo and Diodorus, 
16 
Britannia, the goddess, 276 
Britons, their condition and man- 
ners, 15, 44 ; serving as aux- 
iliaries abroad, 104 
Brocavium (Brougham), 130 
Bronze, instruments made of, 72 ; 
swords, 75 ; daggers, 78 ; Ro- 
man manufactures in, 240 
Bronzes, Roman, 341 
Brovonacae (Kirby Thore), 130 
Buckets, Anglo-Saxon, 428 
Bullaeum, see Burrium 
Burgwara, 441, 444 
Burrium (UsJc), 96, 136, 144 
Bustum, 301 



Caer, 453 

Caer-Legion (Caerleon), 454 

Caer-Luel (Carlisle), 453 

Caer-Marddyn (Caermarthen) 454 

Caer-Seiont, 454 

Caer- Went, 454 

Caesar, Julius, invades Britain, 5 ; 

his second invasion, 8 
Caesaromagus (Chelmsford), 134 
Cairns, 56 

Calcaria (Tadcaster), 127 
Calceus, calceamentum, 332 
Caledonia Sylva, 42 
Caledonii (Scotland), 38, 42, 106 
Caliga, 331 
Caligula marches to the coast of 

Gaul, 20 
Calleva (Silchester), 96, 136 
Cambodunum (Slack), 96, 139 
Camboricum (Cambridge) 135 
Camulodunum (Colchester), 19, 21, 

24, 30, 96, 134 
Camunlodunum, see Cambodunum. 
Candelabrum, 340 
Cangi, 23, 41 

Canonium (Kelvedon), 134 
Cantae (Scottish tribe), 42 



Canterbury, its municipal condition 
under the Anglo-Saxons, 437 

Cantii (Kent), 40 

Cantwara-byrig (Canterbury), 392 

Capulus, 343 

Caput stater w, 346 

Caracalla, 108-111 

Caractacus, 18, 24 

Carausius, assumes the empire, 114 ; 
his coins, 115 ; murdered, 117 

Carbantorigum (Kirkcudbright), 97 

Carnabii (Scottish tribe), 42 

Carnonacae (Scottish tribe), 42 

Carnydd, 56 

Cartismandua, 25, 26, 35 

Cassi (Hertfordshire), 12, 40 

Cassivellaunus, 9 

Castra Exploratorum (Netherby), 131 

Cataractonium (Catterick), 96, 128 

Catini (Scottish tribe), 42 

Catus Decianus, 30 

Catyeuchlani (Buckingham, Bedford, 
and Hertford), 40 

Cauci (Irish tribe), 43 

Cauponw, caupones, 182 

Causennae (Ancaster), 125 

Caves, habitations in, 90-93 

Ceajius, a deity worshipped in Ro- 
man Britain, 295 

Ceaster, 453 

Ceawlin, king of the West-Saxons, 
393 

Celtic tribes, their origin and move- 
ment, 1 

Celts, instruments so called, 73 

Cemeteries, Roman, 177 

Cenia (the Fal), 142 

Cenimagni (the people of Suffolk), 
12 

Cenotaph, Anglo-Saxon, 402, 403 

Centrum stater ce, 346 

Centurial stones, 351-353 

Cerdic, king of the West-Saxons, 392 

Cerealis, Petilius, 31, 36 

Ceres, worship of, 264 

Cerones (Scottish tribe), 42 

Chatelaine of the Anglo-Saxon 
ladies, 418 

Christianity, its establishment in 
Roman Britain questioned, 296- 
299 ; among the Welsh, 454 

Cilurnum (Chesters), 112, 132 

Circinus, 345 



480 



INDEX. 



Circles of stones, 57 

Cissan-ceaster (Chichester), 392 

Cities of Britain, their condition 
when the Roman legions left the 
island, 386 

Civitas, 359, 360, 362, 437 

Classiciamis, Julius, 34 

Claudius, his expedition to Britain, 
20 

Clausentum (Bittern), 142 

Cnut, king, deceives the citizens of 
London, 445 

Coal, Kirnmeridge, 231, mineral, 
used as fuel by the Romans, 233 

Coccium (Ribchester), 139 

Cochlear, 344 

Cocidius, a god worshipped in 
Roman Britain, 293 

Cogidubnus, or Cogidunus, 29 

Coinage, British, 18 

Coins, British, 83-86; Roman, 
plated, 365; forged, 366; coins 
relating to Britain, 369; modes 
in which they were hoarded up, 
369, 370 ; proportional numbers 
in which Roman coins are 
found, 371-373 ; Anglo-Saxon, 
430 

Colania (Car stairs, or Lanark), 97, 
131 

Collegia, 361 

Colonic?, 359 

Colonies, Roman, 249 

Colum, cola nivaria, 336 

Combretonium (Burgh), 135 

Combs, Roman, 332 ; Anglo-Saxon, 
420 

Comius, a British prince, 18 

Commius, the Attrebatian, 6, 7, 8, 
13 

Commodus, 102 

Compasses, Roman, 345 

Condate (Kinderton), 138 

Condercum (Benwell), 132 

Congavata, 133 

Connuhium, 362 

Conovium (Caer-hun), 138 

Constans visits Britain, 118 

Constantine the Great, 118 

Const antine, the usurper, his his- 
tory, 383, 384 

Constantius, marches against Carau- 
sius and Allectus, 117 



Corbridge lanx, 269 

Corda (Birrensivork) , 97 

Coria, 97 

Corinium (Cirencester), 96, 136 

Coriondi (Irish tribe), 43 

Coritavi (Northampton, Leicester, 

Rutland, Derby, Nottingham, 

Lincoln), 40 
Cornabii (WarivicJc, Worcester, Staf- 
ford, Salop, Cheshire), 41 
Corn-wealas, 454 
Corstopitum (Corchester, Corbridge), 

129 
Costume of the Romans, 326 
Cowey Stakes, 14 
Cowries found in Anglo-Saxon 

graves, 421 
Crassus, Publius, 3 
Creones (Scottish tribe), 42 
Crococolana {Brough), 127 
Cromlechs, 51-56; their position, 

63, 64 ;' age of, 81 
Cryptoporticus, in Roman villas, 

197 
Culinarv.utensils, Roman, 337 
Culter, 257, 342 
Cumbria, kingdom of, 453 
Cunetio (Folly Farm), 143 
Cunobeline, 18, 19 
Curator viarum, 182 
Curia (Currie), 97, 129 
Curia, 360 
Curiales, 360 
Cynric, king of the West-Saxons, 

393 
Cyren-ceaster (Cirencester), 394 



D. 

Damnii (a Scottish tribe), 42 
Damnonii (Devon and Cornwall), 22, 

40 
Danum (Doncaster), 127 
Darini (Irish tribe), 43 
Decianus, Catus, 31 
Decuriones, 360 
Defensor civitatis, 360 
Deira, kingdom of, 390 
Delgovitia (site uncertain), 128 
Demetse (Wales), 41 
Derventio (Old Malton), 128 
Derventio (Little Chester), 140 



INDEX. 



481 



Deva {Chester), 96, 138 
Devana (Old Aberdeen), 97 
Diana, worship of, 263 
Dicalidones (a Scottish tribe), 375 
Didius Gallus, Avitus, 26 
Diplomata, 182 
Diversoria, diversores, 182 
Dobuni (Gloucester and Oxford), 

21, 40 
Dogs, British, 208, 211 
Dolichene, Jupiter, 259 
Dolmen, 51 . 

Dorocina (Dorchester, Oxf.), 141 
Dover, its municipal privileges 

under the Anglo-Saxons, 438 
Drinking-glasses, Anglo-Saxon, 423 
Droit de gite, 438 
Druids, their political faction in 

Gaul, 4 ; retire to Anglesea, 27 ; 

their system and worship, 45- 

48 
Druids' circles, 58 
Druids' beads, 230 
Dubrad (Dover), 121, 144 
Dunium (Dorchester), 95 
Durius (the Dart), 142 
Durnovaria, (Dorchester), 95, 142 
Durotriges (Dorset), 40 
Durobrivae (Rochester), 121 
Durobrivee (Castor), 125 
Durocobrivse (Dunstable), 123 
Durolevum (Davington), 121 
Durolipons (Godmanchester), 125,135 
Durolitum, or Durositum (Romford), 

134 
Durovernum (Canterbury), 95, 121 
Duumviri, 360 



E. 

East-Anglia, kingdom of, founded, 
394 ; the East- Angles converted 
to Christianity, 397 

Eastlow hill, in Suffolk, a remark- 
able barrow opened by professor 
Henslow, 312 

East-Saxons, kingdom of the, 
founded, 394; their conversion 
to Christianity, 397 

Eblani (Irish tribe), 43 

Eburacum (York), 96, 108, 110, 127, 
128 



Echevins, 437 

Elauna, the goddess, 295 

Ellebri (Irish tribe), 43 

Eofor-wic (TorJc), 390 

Epiacum (Lanchester), 96, 129 

Epidii (Scottish tribe), 42 

Epistomium, 338 

Epona, the goddess, 281 

Eppillus, a British prince, 18 

Erclini (Irish tribe), 43 

Ermin Street, 451 

Erpeditani (Irish tribe), 43 

Eteocetum (Wall), 124, 139 

Eustache, count of Boulogne, his 
quarrel with the burghers of 
Dover, 438 

Exeter, its position under the Anglo- 
Saxons, 440 

Exan-ceaster (Exeter), 454 



F. 

Fanum Cocidis (near BanJcshead), 

293 
Fibulae, Eoman, 327 ; Anglo-Saxon, 

410-415 
Fire-dogs, Roman, found in Britain, 

335 
Fire-places, Roman, 335 
Focus, 257, 335 
Forfex, 342 

Forgeries of Roman coins, 366-368 
Forks, Roman, 343 
Fortune, worship of, 275, 279, 280 
Forum Dianas (Dunstable), 123 
Frontinus, Julius, 36 
Fulgur divom, 325 



G. 



Gabrosentae (Burgh-upon-Sands), 133 
Gadeni (Cumberland and Scottish 

hordes), 41 
Gagates, or jet, 231 
Galacum (near Kendal), 96, 139 
Galava (Keswick), 139 
Galgacus, 38 
Galgal, 56 

Gallus, Avitus Didius, 26 
Gangani (Irish tribe), 43 
Gariannonum {Burgh Castle), 382 
II 



482 



INDEX. 



Genii, worship of the, 247, 274 

Gerontius, count, 384 

Gessoriacum {Boulogne), 6 

Gildas, his legendary history, 387, 
389 

Glanovanta, 134 

Glass, Eoman, 224, manufactured at 
Brighton, 225, different articles 
made of it, 226 - 230 ; Anglo- 
Saxon glass, 423 ; German-Saxon 
glass, 425 

Glass windows in Roman houses, 
170 

Gleow-ceaster (Gloucester), 394 

Glevum (Gloucester), 136 

Gobannium (Abergavenny), 138, 144 

Gold found in Britain, 239 

Goldsmiths, skill of the Anglo- 
Saxon, 416 

Goldsmith's sign at Old Malton, 
247 

Government, Roman, in Britain, 350 

Governors of Roman Britain — 
Propraetors. 
Aulus Plautius, 20, 358 
Ostorius Scapula, 22 
Avitus Didius Gallus, 26 
Veranius, 27 

Caius Suetonius Paullinus, 27 
Petronius Turpilianus, 34 
Trebellius Maximus, 35 
Vettius Bolanus, 35 
Petilius Cerealis, 36 
Julius Frontinus, 36 
Julius Agricola, 36-39 
Sallustius Lucullus, 98 
Julius Sever us, 100 
Priscus Licinius, 100, 358 
Lollius Urbicus, 100, 358 
Platorius Nepos, 358 
Aufidius Victorinus, 101 
C. Valerius Pansa, 358 
Ulpius Marcellus, 102 
Perennis, 102 
Quintus Calpurnius, 358 
Publius Helvius Pertinax, 102 
Decimus Clodius Albinus, 102 
Virius Lupus, 105, 358 
Claudius Xenophon, 358 
Marius Valerianus, 112, 358 
Msecelius Fuscus, 358 
Gnseus Lucilianus, 358 
Claudius Paulinus, 358 



Governors (continued) : — 
Nonnius Philippus, 112, 358 

Vicarii. 
Martin, 119 
Alypius, 374 
Civilis, 375, 376 
Chrysanthus, 382 
Gratian, a British usurper, 383 
Gregory, pope, undertakes the con- 
version of the Anglo-Saxons, 
395 

H. 

Habitancum (Risingham), 129 
Hadrian in Britain, 99 
Hadrian's wall, 99, 131 
Hair-pins, Roman, 328 ; Anglo- 
Saxon, 416 
Earn, 432 
Hammia, a goddess worshipped in 

Roman Britain, 295 
Harimella, the goddess, 295 
Hengest and Horsa arrive in Kent, 

390, 391 
Herculentus, the god, 295 
Hercules, worship of, 268 
Heriri Mons (Snowdon), 125 
Hibernia (Ireland), invaded by the 

Romans, 39, its inhabitants, 43 
Himilco, the Carthaginian, 3 
Holy Promontory (Carnsore Point), 

43 
Honorius, the emperor, gives liberty 

to the cities of Britain, 385 
Horestii (Scottish tribe), 42 
Household gods of the Romans, 

341 
Houses, Roman, 162-173 
Hrofes-ceaster (Rochester), 392 
Hunnum (Halton- Chester s), 132 
Euscarles, 440, 445 
Hypocausts, in Roman houses, 164 



Iceni (Suffolk, Norfolk, Cambridge, 

and Huntingdon), 23, 40 
Iciani (IcMingham), 135, 435 
Ictis (the isle of Wight), 3 
Ida, king of Northumbria, 394 
lerne, 3 



INDEX. 



483 



Iknield Street, 451 

Imanuentius, king of the Trino- 
bantes, 11 

In Medio, 127 

Inscriptions in Roman villas, 201, 
204; on drinking vessels, 228, 
229 ; on a Roman pig of copper, 
234; on pigs of lead, 237, 238; 
on silver, 239; on medicine 
stamps, 242-246 ; on signs, 247 ; 
on roundels at Colchester, 254 ; 
on altars, 258-296 ; sepulchral 
inscriptions, 313-322 ; centu- 
rial stones, 331-353 ; early in- 
scriptions to the emperors, 353- 
357; to municipal officers, 361; 
sepulchral inscriptions found in 
Cornwall and Wales, 454, 456 

Iron, procured in Britain, 1 5 

Iron manufacture under the Romans, 
234-236 

Isannavaria (Burnt walls), 124 

Isca Dumnoniorum, (Exeter), 95, 
142 

Isca Silurum (Caerleon), 26, 96, 137, 
144 

Ischalis (Ilchester), 95, 143 

Isinse (Ancaster), 125 

Isurium (Aldborough) , 96, 128 

Itineraries, Roman, 120, 457-462 

Ituna (Solway Firth), 133 

Iverni (Irish tribe), 43 



Jewellery, Anglo-Saxon, 415, 416 
Jugantes, 41 
Julianus, Didius, 103 
Jupiter, worship of, 258 
Jutes, 390 



K. 

Kent, kingdom of, founded, 391 
Keys, Roman, 333; Anglo-Saxon, 

419 
Kimmeridge coal, ornaments made 

of, 231 
Kist-vaen, 51 
Knives, Roman, 342 ; Anglo-Saxon, 

406, 418 



Lachrymatories, 226 
Lactodorum (Toivcester), 124 
Lamps, Roman, 339, 340 
Lamps placed in Roman graves, 

305 
Lancida, 346 
Lares, 341 

Lavatraa (Bowes), 130 
Lead, manufacture of in Roman 

Britain, 237; leaden coffins found 

in Roman cemeteries, 308 
Legions, Roman, in Britain, 97, 382 
Legiolium (Castleford), 127 
Lemanis Portus, (Lymne), 121, 144 
Leucarum (Llychwr), 137 
Libra, 346 
Lichavens, 53 
Licinius, Priscus, 100 
Ligula, 344 
Lightning, people killed by, buried 

on the spot, 325 
Lindum (Lincoln), 96, 126 
Lindum (Ardoch), 97, 130 
Locks, Roman, 333 
Logi (Scottish tribe), 42 
Londinium (London), 32, 95,122; 

the residence of the propraetor, 

156 
London, its municipal history under 

the Anglo-Saxons, 441-446 
Low, 49, 401 
Lucerna, 339 
Lucius, king, a fabulous personage, 

298 
Lucopibia, (Whithem), 97 
Lucullus, Sallustius, 98 
Luentinum (Llanio), 99, 144 
Luguballium, Luguvallium (Car* 

lisle), 130, 133 
Lundenwic (London) i 443 
Lupicinus, 119 
Lupus, Virius, 105 
Lutudarum (Chesterfield), 141 



M. 

Maeatse (a northern tribe), 106 
Magiovintum (Fenny Stratford), 124 
Magna (Kenchester), 138 
Magna (Car v or an), 133 



484 



INDEX. 



Magnatae (Irish tribe), 43 

Magnentius, 118 

Mais, a town near Hadrian's wall, 

208 
Mancipes, 182 

Mancunium (Manchester), 139 
Mandubratius, chief of the Trino- 

bantes, 10, 12 
Manduessedum (Manceter), 124 
Mansiones, 182 
Maponus, a god worshipped in 

Roman Britain, 295 
Marcellus, Ulpius, 102 
Marcus, a British usurper, 383 
Margidunum (Bridgeford), 127 
Maridunum (Caermarthen) , 96, 137 
Mars, worship of, 261 
Martin, governor of Britain, 119 
Masonry, Roman, characteristics of 

153-161 
Matres dese, worship of the, 281 ; 

traces of in the middle ages, 282- 

288 ; Roman altars in Britain 

dedicated to, 289, 290 
Matunus, a god worshipped in 

Roman Britain, 295 
Maurusius, Victorinus, 113 
Maximus, Magnus, his revolt and 

usurpation, 379 ; his death, 381 ; 

fables connected with him, 381 
Medicine stamps, Roman, 241- 

246 
Mediolanum (Chesterton), 139 
Mediolanum (on the Tanad), 96, 

125 
Menapia (St. David's), 137 
Menapii (Irish tribe), 43 
Menhir, 53, 61 
Mercia, kingdom of, 394 
Mercury, worship of, 265 
Mertas (Scottish tribe), 42 
Middle-Angles converted to Chris- 
tianity, 397 
Mile-stones, Roman, 183; length of 

the Roman mile, 184 
Military force in Britain under the 

Romans, 351 
Milliarium, 183, 354 
Minerva, worship of, 263 
Minimi, 430 

Mint, Roman, in Britain, 364 
Mirrors, Roman, 332 
Missio, 362 



Mistletoe, a sacred plant among the 

druids, 48 
Mithras, worship of, 269-272 
Mogontis, a god worshipped in 

Britain, 291, 293 
Mona (Anglesea), 41 
Money, see Coins. 
Mons Heriri (Snoivdon), 125 
Morbium (Temple-borough), 141 
Moridunum (Honiton ?), 142 
Mortar, Roman, 160 
Mortaria, Roman, 223, 337 
Municipia, 359 

Munuces-ceaster (Newcastle), 390 
Mutationes, 182 



N. 

Nails in the Roman sandals, 331 
Nasica, Csesius, 27 
Needles, Roman, 342 
Nidum (Neath), 137 
Niger, Pescennius, 103 
Northumbrians converted to Chris- 
tianity, 397 
Notitia Imperii, 349 
Novantes (a Scottish tribe), 42 
Noviomagus (Holioood hill), 95, 122 
Nucleus, 180 

Numen, numina, 261, 278 
Nymphs, worship of the, 272 



O. 



Octopitorum Promontorium, 138 
Oculists' stamps, Roman, 241-246 
Officials, Roman, in Britain, 350, 

351 
Olenacum (Old Carlisle), 133 
Olicana (IlJcley), 96, 139 
Olla, 337 

Ordovices (North Wales), 24, 36, 41 
Orestii, see Horestii 
Orrea (Bertha), 97, 130 
Ostorius Scapula, 22 
Otadeni (Northumberland and South 

of Scotland), 41 
Othona (Ythanceaster), 382 
Oysters, British, 94 
Oyster-shells, found on Roman sites, 

338 



INDEX. 



485 



Parisii {Yorkshire), 40 

Patera, 257 

Paullinus, Caius Suetonius, 27, 34 

Paulus Catena, 119 

Pavements, tesselated, 190, 201-205 

Pavimentum, 180 

Pecten, 332 

Penates, 341 

Pennocrucium (on the PenTc), 124 

Perennis, 102 

Pertinax, 102 

Petriana (Cambech Fort), 133 

Petronius Turpilianus, 34 

Petuaria, 96, 127 

Peulvan, 53, 61 

Philippus, Nonnius, 112 

Picts and Scots, 113, 375 

Planets, deities of the, 265 

Plautius, Aulus, 20, 22 

Plebs, 360 

Polycletus, 34 

Pons JElii (Newcastle), 130, 132 

Pontes (Staines), 136 

Population of Roman Britain, its 
character, 250 

Portus Lemanis (Lymne), 121, 145 

Portus Magnus (Portchester), 144 

Portus Sistuntiorum (Freckleton), 
139 

Potter's marks, 219, 467-475 

Pottery, British, 67; Roman, made 
in the Upchurch marshes, 209 ; 
at Durobrivas, 211 ; potters' 
kilns, 212 ; Samian ware, 216 ; 
other varieties of Roman pot- 
teries, 221 ; Anglo-Saxon, 421 ; 
German-Saxon, 423; Frankish, 
427 

Prcefecti, 437 

Prwfericulum, 257 

Propositus regis, 448 

Prsetorium (Flamborough Head ? ), 
128 

Prasutagus, 30 

Principales, 360 

Probi homines, 437 

Procolitia (Carrawburgh), 132 

Propraetors of Britain, see Governors 

Province, Roman, its constitution 
and divisions, 349 

Pteroton Castrum (Burghead), 97 



Ptolemy's account of Britain, 40 
Puncta stater 03, 346 
Puticuli, 324 
Pyra, 301 

Q. 

Querns, for grinding corn, 337 



E. 



Rata? (Leicester), 96, 126 

Ravenna, anonymous geographer of, 

120 ; his list of Roman towns in 

Britain, 463 
Reeves, 437, 442, 446 
Regni (Sussex and Surrey), 40 
Regnum (Chichester), 29, 144 
Regulbium (Reculver), 121 
Retigonium (Stranraer), 97 
Ricagm ... a goddess worshipped 

in Roman Britain, 295 
Richard of Cirencester, 120, 459; 

his Itinerary, 460 
Rigodunum (Ribchester) , 96 
Rings, Roman, 328 
Roads, Roman, construction of, 180- 

182, adopted by the Ajnglo- 

Saxons, 450 
Robogdii (Irish tribe), 43 
Rochester, its municipal privileges 

under the Anglo-Saxons, 438 
Rockingstones, 61 
Rogus, 301 

Roofs of Roman houses, 171 
Roundels, inscribed, found at Col- 
chester, 254 
Rubbish pits attached to Roman 

towns, 179 
Rudge cup, 208 
Rudus, ruder atio, 180 
Rutunium (Roivton), 125, 138 
Rutupiee (Richborough), 94, 95, 121 
Ryknield Street, 451 



S. 



Salinas (Droitwich), 139 
Salinas of Ptolemy, 96, 140 
Salt- ways, the roads so called, 451 
Samian ware, 216 



INDEX. 



Sandals, Roman, 331 

Sarabus sinus, Neptune so called, 
295 

Sarcophagi of stone at York, 306 

Saxonicum littus, 386 

Saxons, invasions of the, 386, 390 
—394 

Scabini, 437 

Scales, Roman, 346 

Scapula, Ostorius, 22 

Scapus, 346 

Sceat, sceattas, 430 

Scissors, Roman, 342 ; Anglo-Saxon, 
418 

Scots, 113 

Searo-byrig (OldSarum), 393 

Seaxas, 406 

Securis, 257 

Segedunum (Wallsend), 131, 132 

Segelocum (Littleborough) , 127 

Segontiaci {Hampshire and Berks), 
12 

Segontium (Caer Seiont), 125, 138 

Selgovae {a Scottish tribe), 42 

Sepulchre, modes of, among the 
Romans, 300; articles buried 
with dead, 322 ; rites of, among 
the Anglo-Saxons, 400 

Sera pensilis, 334 

Serapis, worship of, 272 

Sestuntii ( Westmoreland and Cum- 
berland), 41 

Setlocenia, a gcddess worshipped in 
Roman Britain, 295 

Severus, the emperor, 103; pro- 
ceeds to Britain, 107; establishes 
his court atEburacum, 108 ; his 
campaigns against the Caledo- 
nians, 109; dies at York, 111 

Severus, Julius, 100 

Severus, Junius, 103 

Shields, Anglo-Saxon, 407 

Signa, 265 

Silures (border of Wales), 24, 26, 36, 
41 

Silvanus, worship of, 207, 267 

Silver, found in Britain, 239 

Sitomagus (Dunwich), 135 

Slaves, traffic in, among the Saxons, 
395; sold in London, 442 

Slaves, immolated at the burial of 
their chiefs by the Anglo-Saxons, 
403 



Sorbiodunum (Old Sarum), 142 

South-Saxons converted to Chris- 
tianity, 398 

Snails found on Roman sites, 338 ; 
snail shells found in Anglo-Saxon 
barrows, 421 

Spears, Anglo-Saxon, 406 

Speculum, 332 

Spinaa (Speen), 136 

Spoons, Roman, 344 

Spurs, Roman and Saxon, 348 

Standard, Roman, found near Stony- 
Stratford, 348 

Statera, 345, 346 

Statores, 182 

Statumen, 180, 181 

Steel for sharpening knives, Roman, 
343 

Steelyards, Roman, 345 

Stependiarice civitates, 359 

Stone implements, 69 — 72 

Stonehenge, 58, 59, 82 

Strath cluyd, kingdom of> 453 

Street, 450 

Strigils, 346 

Sturius (the Stour), 134 

Stylus, 344 

Suetonius Paullinus, Caius, 27, 34 

Sulloniacaa (Brockley Hill), 123 

Summum dorsum, summa crusta, 
180 

Superstitions connected with ancient 
monuments, 62, 63, 79 

Swegen, king, his death, 447 

Swords, British or Roman, 75 ; 
Anglo-Saxon, 404—406 

Syria dea, worship of, 264 



Tabernce diver sorio3, 182 
Tabula, 344 

Tabula? honestaz missionis, 362 
Taixali (Scottish tribe), 42 
Tamara (on the Tama?*), 95, 142 
Tamesis (Sinodun Hill?), 141 
Tamia (Braemar Castle), 97 
Tasciovanus, 18 
Tegida, 304 

Terra-cottas, Roman, 224 
Tertianaz deo3, 281 
Tetricus, 112 



INDEX. 



487 



Theatres, Roman, 176 

Theodosia (Dumbarton), 131 

Theodosius takes the command in 
Britain, 375 

Thetford, the townsmen of, kill 
their abbot, 440 

Tibia (the Taaf), 137 

Tiles, Roman, 155 

Tin, procured from Britain, 2, 3 

Tine . . . , a British prince, 18 

Tintinnabulum, 339 

Titus, the emperor, 21 

Togodumnus, a British prince, 18, 21 

Tombs, Roman, made of tiles, 304 

Torques, torquis, 329; torquis bra- 
chials, 330 

Town, Roman, description of a, 146; 
its walls, 147 ; gates, 149 ; 
houses, 162; streets, 172; public 
buildings, 174 ; suburbs, 177 ; 
drainage, 177 — 179 

Towns, municipal, under the Ro- 
mans, 359 ; preserved under the 
Anglo-Saxons, 435 ; examples, 
Canterbury, 437 ; Rochester and 
Dover, 438 ; Thetford, Wor- 
cester, Exeter, 440 ; London, 
441 — 446 ; charters granted to 
towns, 449 

Trebellius Maximus, 35 

Trebonius, Caius, 11 

Triliths, 53 

Trimontium (Eildon), 97, 129 

Trinobantes (the people of Essex) 10, 
40 

Tripontium (Dove Bridge), 124 

Trua, or trulla, 336 

Trutina, 345 

Tuesis (Cromdale), 97 

Tumblers (Origin of the word), 424 

Tun, 432 

Tunnocelum (Drumburgh), 133 

Turpilianus, Petronius, 34 

Tweezers, Roman, 332 ; Anglo- 
Saxon, 418 



U. 

Urbicus, Lollius, 100, 101 
Uriconium (Wroxeter), 96, 124, 138 
Urns, sepulchral, Roman, 302 ; An- 
glo-Saxon, 421 



Usdiaa (Irish tribe), 43 

Ustrinum, 301 

Uxela (Bridgeivater), 95 

Uxelum (Raeburnfoot, or Castleover) , 

97, 131 
Uxaconium (Red-hill, or OaJcen-gates) , 

124 



Vacomagi (Scottish tribe), 42 
Vagniacse (Southfieet), 122 
Valentinus, his intrigues against 

Theodosius, 378 
Valerianus, Marius, 112 
Vanduara (Paisley), 97, 131 
Vara? (Bodfari), 138 
Vecturiones (Scottish tribe), 375 
Velibori (Irish tribe), 43 
Yellocatus, 35 
Veniconii (Irish tribe), 43 
Venonse (High Cross), 126 
Venricones (Scottish tribe), 42 
Venta Belgarum ( Winchester), 95, 141 
Venta Icenorum (Caistor), 96, 135 
Venta Silurum (Caerwent), 144 
Venusius, chief of the Brigantes, 26, 

35 
Veranius, 27 
Verbeia, a goddess worshipped in 

Roman Britain, 295 
Veredarii, 182 
Veric, a British prince, 18 
Verlucio (Eighfield), 144 
Yerometum (near Willoughby), 126 
Verteraa (Brough), 130 
Yerulamium (near St. Albarts), 14, 

19, 32, 96, 123, 176 
Yespasian, the emperor, 21 
Yeteres, Vetires, or Yetiris, a god 

worshipped in Roman Britain, 

291 
Yettius Bolanus, 35 
Vice, vicinales, privates, agrarian, 

devio3, 181 
Yicarii of Britain, see Governors. 
Yictoria (Dealgin Boss), 97, 130 
Yictorinus, Aufidius, 101 
Yictorinus Maurusius, 113 
Victory, worship of, 280 
Villa, 437 
Villa Faustini, 135 



488 



INDEX. 



Villas, Roman, 186 — 201; occupied 

by the Anglo-Saxons, 435 
Villages, British and Roman, 87 — 

90, 205 
Vindobala (Rut Chester), 132 
Vindogladia (Gussages), 142 
Vindolana (Chesterholm), 133 
Vindomis (Whitechurch), 142 
Vindomora (Eh Chester), 129 
Vinovium or Vinnovium (Bin- 

chester), 96, 129 
Viradesthi, a goddess worshipped in 

Roman Britain, 296 
Viroconium, see Uriconium. 
Virosidum (Maryport and Ellen- 

borough), 134 
Vodiae (Irish tribe), 43 
Voliba (on the Fowey), 95 
Volsellce, 332 
Voluba (the Foivey), 142 
Voluntii (Lancashire), 41 
Voluntii (Irish tribe), 43 



Vortigern, King of the Britains, 389 



W. 

Walls, Roman, their character, 147- 
149 ; Hadrian's, see Hadrian 

Water-cock, Roman, 338 

Watling-street, 450 

Weapons, Roman, 347 

Week, gods of the days of the, 255 

Welsh, origin and meaning of the 
word, 391; the Welsh settle- 
ment in England, 452 — 456 ; 
Christianity introduced among 
them, 454 

Wessex, kingdom of, founded, 392 

West-Saxons converted to Chris- 
tianity, 397 

Wintan-ceaster (Winchester), 393 

Woodchester, Roman villa there 
described, 188—198 



THE END. 



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